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→Three-dimensional seismic geomorphology
[[File:M91Ch11FG72.JPG|thumb|300px|{{figure number|4}}Log facies maps show the bedding configuration within the reservoir interval. The log patterns are then related to the lithofacies scheme and can be used to define lithofacies maps. This example is from the Budare field of Venezuela (from Hamilton et al.<ref name=Hamiltonetal_2002 />). SP = spontaneous potential log; GR = gamma-ray log.]]
[[File:M91Ch11FG72.JPG|thumb|300px|{{figure number|4}}Log facies maps show the bedding configuration within the reservoir interval. The log patterns are then related to the lithofacies scheme and can be used to define lithofacies maps. This example is from the Budare field of Venezuela (from Hamilton et al.<ref name=Hamiltonetal_2002 />). SP = spontaneous potential log; GR = gamma-ray log.]]
Carbonate sediments produce distinctive seismic facies with reefs and marginal reef environments commonly well imaged.<ref name=Fontaineetal_1987>Fontaine, J. M., R. Cussey, J. Lacaze, R. Lanaud, and L. Yapaudjian, 1987, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/bulletns/1986-87/data/pg/0071/0003/0250/0281.htm Seismic interpretation of carbonate depositional environments]: AAPG Bulletin, v. 71, no. 3, p. 281–297.</ref> <ref name=Masaferroetal_2003>Masaferro, J. L., R. Bourne, and J.-C. Jauffred, 2003, 3D visualization of carbonate reservoirs: The Leading Edge, v. 19, no. 1, p. 18–25.</ref><ref name= Eberlietal_2004>Eberli, G. P., J. L. Masaferro, and J. F. Sarg, 2004, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir81/INTRODUCTION/INTRODUCTION.HTM Seismic imaging of carbonate reservoirs and systems], ''in'' G. P. Eberli, J. L. Masaferro, and J. F. Sarg, eds., Seismic imaging of carbonate reservoirs and systems: [http://store.aapg.org/detail.aspx?id=659 AAPG Memoir 81], p. 1–9.</ref> Deep-water marine deposits typically show sharp lithological contrasts between sand bodies and the encasing deep marine mudstones. These enable the sandstones to be picked on horizon slice amplitude and semblance displays.<ref name=Varnai_1998>Varnai, P., 1998, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/bulletns/1998/05may_b/0986/0986.htm Three-dimensional seismic stratigraphic expression of Pliocene–Pleistocene turbidite systems, northern Green Canyon (offshore Louisiana), northern Gulf of Mexico]: AAPG Bulletin, v. 82, no. 5B, p. 986–1012.</ref> <ref name=Salleretal_2004>Saller, A. H., J. T. Noah, A. P. Ruzuar, and R. Schneider, 2004, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/bulletns/2004/01jan/0021/0021.HTM Linked lowstand delta to basin-floor fan deposition, offshore Indonesia: An analog for deep-water reservoir systems]: AAPG Bulletin, v. 88, no. 1, p. 21–46.</ref> Semblance displays (also known as coherence cubetrade displays) are computed from seismic data by comparing the similarity of each seismic trace with its neighbors within a specific window of interest. Significant changes in the response corresponding to sand pinch-outs or faults are highlighted as edges.<ref name=Bahorichandfarmer_1985>Bahorich, M., and S. Farmer, 1995, 3-D seismic discontinuity for faults and stratigraphic features: The coherency cube: The Leading Edge, v. 14, p. 1053–1058.</ref> <ref name=Marfurtetal_1998>Marfurt, K. J., R. L. Kirlin, S. L. Farmer, and M. S. Bahorich, 1998, 3-D seismic attributes using a semblance-based coherency algorithm: Geophysics, v. 63, no. 4, p. 1150–1165.</ref>
Carbonate sediments produce distinctive seismic facies with reefs and marginal reef environments commonly well imaged.<ref name=Fontaineetal_1987>Fontaine, J. M., R. Cussey, J. Lacaze, R. Lanaud, and L. Yapaudjian, 1987, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/bulletns/1986-87/data/pg/0071/0003/0250/0281.htm Seismic interpretation of carbonate depositional environments]: AAPG Bulletin, v. 71, no. 3, p. 281–297.</ref> <ref name=Masaferroetal_2003>Masaferro, J. L., R. Bourne, and J.-C. Jauffred, 2003, 3D visualization of carbonate reservoirs: The Leading Edge, v. 19, no. 1, p. 18–25.</ref><ref name= Eberlietal_2004>Eberli, G. P., J. L. Masaferro, and J. F. Sarg, 2004, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir81/INTRODUCTION/INTRODUCTION.HTM Introduction], ''in'' G. P. Eberli, J. L. Masaferro, and J. F. Sarg, eds., Seismic imaging of carbonate reservoirs and systems: [http://store.aapg.org/detail.aspx?id=659 AAPG Memoir 81], p. 1–9.</ref> Deep-water marine deposits typically show sharp lithological contrasts between sand bodies and the encasing deep marine mudstones. These enable the sandstones to be picked on horizon slice amplitude and semblance displays.<ref name=Varnai_1998>Varnai, P., 1998, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/bulletns/1998/05may_b/0986/0986.htm Three-dimensional seismic stratigraphic expression of Pliocene–Pleistocene turbidite systems, northern Green Canyon (offshore Louisiana), northern Gulf of Mexico]: AAPG Bulletin, v. 82, no. 5B, p. 986–1012.</ref> <ref name=Salleretal_2004>Saller, A. H., J. T. Noah, A. P. Ruzuar, and R. Schneider, 2004, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/bulletns/2004/01jan/0021/0021.HTM Linked lowstand delta to basin-floor fan deposition, offshore Indonesia: An analog for deep-water reservoir systems]: AAPG Bulletin, v. 88, no. 1, p. 21–46.</ref> Semblance displays (also known as coherence cubetrade displays) are computed from seismic data by comparing the similarity of each seismic trace with its neighbors within a specific window of interest. Significant changes in the response corresponding to sand pinch-outs or faults are highlighted as edges.<ref name=Bahorichandfarmer_1985>Bahorich, M., and S. Farmer, 1995, 3-D seismic discontinuity for faults and stratigraphic features: The coherency cube: The Leading Edge, v. 14, p. 1053–1058.</ref> <ref name=Marfurtetal_1998>Marfurt, K. J., R. L. Kirlin, S. L. Farmer, and M. S. Bahorich, 1998, 3-D seismic attributes using a semblance-based coherency algorithm: Geophysics, v. 63, no. 4, p. 1150–1165.</ref>
Geometrical patterns that allow depositional sedimentary environments to be recognized can sometimes be picked out by seismic facies analysis.<ref name=Posamentier_2004 /> Seismic facies analysis involves the analysis of seismic character to help predict the depositional environment. One method uses a computer-based neural network analysis of waveform character within a window of seismic data. A map is made showing the areal distribution of the waveform character classes, and this can be correlated with lithofacies variation.
Geometrical patterns that allow depositional sedimentary environments to be recognized can sometimes be picked out by seismic facies analysis.<ref name=Posamentier_2004 /> Seismic facies analysis involves the analysis of seismic character to help predict the depositional environment. One method uses a computer-based neural network analysis of waveform character within a window of seismic data. A map is made showing the areal distribution of the waveform character classes, and this can be correlated with lithofacies variation.