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Naturally occurring elements are classified into major elements, minor elements, trace elements and noble gases ([[:File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_3.png|Figure 3]]).

Naturally occurring elements are classified into major elements, minor elements, trace elements and noble gases ([[:File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_3.png|Figure 3]]).

According to Nordberg, and Cherian (2005) major elements are those elements that are needed in large quantities in the body; each makes more than 1% of the human body (oxygen alone making up to 65% of the body). They include hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. These elements form most of the DNA structures in the human body; they occur in most organs and tissues. In addition, they are the main building blocks of enzymes; they are also important constituents of the cell membrane, inter-cellular, intracellular fluids and are actively involved in metabolic processes, all in their ionic states. Hence, in the event of high intake of these elements, the body has many ‘sites’ where they can be used. Nature provides a good abundance of these elements as it has been observed that the concentration of these elements is fairly the same in similar rocks and show the least variance compared to the minor and trace elements. Thus, they rarely pose problems (Selinus et al, 2013).

According to Nordberg, and Cherian<ref>Nordberg, M. and M. G. Cherian, 2010. Biological Responses of Elements. In: Selinus, O., Alloway, B., Centeno, J.A., Finkelman, R.B., Fuge, R., Lindh, U. and Smedley, P. (eds.) Essentials of Medical Geology. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 179-200.</ref> major elements are those elements that are needed in large quantities in the body; each makes more than 1% of the human body (oxygen alone making up to 65% of the body). They include hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. These elements form most of the DNA structures in the human body; they occur in most organs and tissues. In addition, they are the main building blocks of enzymes; they are also important constituents of the cell membrane, inter-cellular, intracellular fluids and are actively involved in metabolic processes, all in their ionic states. Hence, in the event of high intake of these elements, the body has many ‘sites’ where they can be used. Nature provides a good abundance of these elements as it has been observed that the concentration of these elements is fairly the same in similar rocks and show the least variance compared to the minor and trace elements. Thus, they rarely pose problems (Selinus et al, 2013).

Minor elements are those elements that are needed in moderate quantities; each has a concentration of 0.1% to 1.0% in the body (Selinus et al, 2013). They share in the functions of the major elements, but in smaller amounts.

Minor elements are those elements that are needed in moderate quantities; each has a concentration of 0.1% to 1.0% in the body (Selinus et al, 2013). They share in the functions of the major elements, but in smaller amounts.

From ancient times, man has explored geologic materials and put them to use for his well- being. Some of them had been used domestically while others have many industrial, as well as medical applications, depending on available technology.

From ancient times, man has explored geologic materials and put them to use for his well- being. Some of them had been used domestically while others have many industrial, as well as medical applications, depending on available technology.

Therapeutic application of medical geology refers to the use of geological materials in the treatment of diseases. Nigeria has a lot of potentials for the therapeutic applications of geologic materials. For instance, the country is blessed with thermal mineralized waters in various parts of the nation such as the Ikogosi Warm Spring in Ekiti State, the mineralized thermal springs at Awe in Nasarawa State and those in the onshore/offshore locations of Delta, Rivers, Cross Rivers, Edo, Bayelsa and Imo States. In addition, Nigeria is blessed with abundance of medicinal clays such as kaolin and bentonite in most states of the federation. Also, there is abundance of peat, trona and potash in some states (after Nghargbu et al, 2013).

Therapeutic application of medical geology refers to the use of geological materials in the treatment of diseases. Nigeria has a lot of potentials for the therapeutic applications of geologic materials. For instance, the country is blessed with thermal mineralized waters in various parts of the nation such as the Ikogosi Warm Spring in Ekiti State, the mineralized thermal springs at Awe in Nasarawa State and those in the onshore/offshore locations of Delta, Rivers, Cross Rivers, Edo, Bayelsa and Imo States. In addition, Nigeria is blessed with abundance of medicinal clays such as kaolin and bentonite in most states of the federation. Also, there is abundance of peat, trona and potash in some states (after Nghargbu et al, 2013<ref name=Ngha>Nghargbu, K., Ponikowska, I., Latour, T., Kurowska, E., Schoeneich, K., and Alagbe, S.A., 2013a. Balneo-therapeutic Quality of Water from Thermal Chlorosodic Springs of the Middle Benue Trough, Nigeria. Unpublished Work, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria,1-9.</ref><ref name=Nghb>Nghargbu, K., Ponikowska, I., Latour, T., Kurowska, E., Schoeneich, K., and Alagbe, S.A. 2013b. Geomedical Resources Inventory: The Nigerian Content. Unpublished Work, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria, 1-15.</ref>).

Sadly, lack of technological know-how and fewer number of medical geology practitioners in Nigeria have limited the extraction of these resources for medical purposes.

Sadly, lack of technological know-how and fewer number of medical geology practitioners in Nigeria have limited the extraction of these resources for medical purposes.

===Mineral/Medicinal waters at Awe, Nigeria===

===Mineral/Medicinal waters at Awe, Nigeria===

<gallery mode=packed heights=300px widths=300px>

<gallery mode=packed heights=300px widths=300px>

UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_12.png|{{figure number|12}}Tangarahu Spring, Awe, Nigeria (after Nghargbu et al, 2013).

UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_12.png|{{figure number|12}}Tangarahu Spring, Awe, Nigeria.<ref name=Ngha /><ref name=Nghb />

UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_13.png|{{figure number|13}}Geology of Awe and environs. QUATERNARY (A) Alluvium (B) Tertiary To Recent Volcanics; CRETACEOUS (C) Nkporo Shale Group (D) Awgu-Ndeabo Shale Group (E) Ezeaku Shale Group (F) Asu River Group; PRECAMBRIAN (G) Basement Complex (H) Anticlinal Axis (I) Synclinal Axis (J) Fracture (after Nghargbu et al, 2013).]]

UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_13.png|{{figure number|13}}Geology of Awe and environs. QUATERNARY (A) Alluvium (B) Tertiary To Recent Volcanics; CRETACEOUS (C) Nkporo Shale Group (D) Awgu-Ndeabo Shale Group (E) Ezeaku Shale Group (F) Asu River Group; PRECAMBRIAN (G) Basement Complex (H) Anticlinal Axis (I) Synclinal Axis (J) Fracture.<ref name=Ngha /><ref name=Nghb />]]

</gallery>

</gallery>

There are five thermal mineralized springs at Awe, Nasarawa State. They include: Bitrus– a borehole, Tangarahu ([[:File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_12.png|Figure 12]]), Ruwan Zafi, Ruwan Dumi and Ruwan Zafi Akiri, all located in the Central Benue Trough of Nigeria ([[:File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_13.png|Figure 13]]).

There are five thermal mineralized springs at Awe, Nasarawa State. They include: Bitrus– a borehole, Tangarahu ([[:File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_12.png|Figure 12]]), Ruwan Zafi, Ruwan Dumi and Ruwan Zafi Akiri, all located in the Central Benue Trough of Nigeria ([[:File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_13.png|Figure 13]]).

The water of these springs is connate in nature; it was formed as a result of the trapping of ancient sea water in the Cretaceous host-beds of sandstone, silt and shale at Awe. They have high concentrations of sodium and chloride together with other cations and anions namely, thus they are termed chlorosodic. They form important sources of salt for the local community. The mineralization value of these springs is in the excess of 1000 mg/l; hence, their use for the treatment of orthopedic, dermatological, gynecological and respiratory tract diseases. According to Nghargbu et al (2013), these springs have temperatures ranging from 32.9 –46.5°C ([[:File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Table_7.png|Table 7]]). This unique temperature range makes the waters of these springs good for the treatment of circulatory and vascular ailments. They are also needed in the treatment of vasodilation and inflammation.

The water of these springs is connate in nature; it was formed as a result of the trapping of ancient sea water in the Cretaceous host-beds of sandstone, silt and shale at Awe. They have high concentrations of sodium and chloride together with other cations and anions namely, thus they are termed chlorosodic. They form important sources of salt for the local community. The mineralization value of these springs is in the excess of 1000 mg/l; hence, their use for the treatment of orthopedic, dermatological, gynecological and respiratory tract diseases. According to Nghargbu et al,<ref name=Ngha /><ref name=Nghb /> these springs have temperatures ranging from 32.9 –46.5°C ([[:File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Table_7.png|Table 7]]). This unique temperature range makes the waters of these springs good for the treatment of circulatory and vascular ailments. They are also needed in the treatment of vasodilation and inflammation.

[[File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Table_7.png|thumb|center|700px|{{table number|7}}Test results for the five medicinal springs at Awe (Modified after Nghargbu et al, 2013).]]

[[File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Table_7.png|thumb|center|700px|{{table number|7}}Test results for the five medicinal springs at Awe.<ref name=Ngha /><ref name=Nghb />]]

Based on consistent similarities observed from laboratory analyses, the Awe springs can be grouped into two namely: Ruwan Akiri, Ruwan Dumi and Tangarahu (Group 1) and Ruwan Zafi and Bitrus (Group 2).

Based on consistent similarities observed from laboratory analyses, the Awe springs can be grouped into two namely: Ruwan Akiri, Ruwan Dumi and Tangarahu (Group 1) and Ruwan Zafi and Bitrus (Group 2).

Group 1 springs are low mineralization waters containing mainly sodium chloride with chlorosodic values of 0.58%, 0.67% and 0.86%, respectively (Nghargbu et al, 2013). They also contain iodine, calcium and magnesium. Group 2 springs are isotonic and have higher concentration of calcium and magnesium; they have chlorosodic value of 0.9%. With these qualities, they are good for medical treatment and prophylaxis (Nghargbu et al, 2013).

Group 1 springs are low mineralization waters containing mainly sodium chloride with chlorosodic values of 0.58%, 0.67% and 0.86%, respectively.<ref name=Ngha /><ref name=Nghb /> They also contain iodine, calcium and magnesium. Group 2 springs are isotonic and have higher concentration of calcium and magnesium; they have chlorosodic value of 0.9%. With these qualities, they are good for medical treatment and prophylaxis.<ref name=Ngha /><ref name=Nghb />

====Therapeutic action of the mineralized thermal springs====

====Therapeutic action of the mineralized thermal springs====

[[File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_14.png|thumb|400px|{{figure number|14}}Balneotherapy in medicinal/mineral waters (after Nghargbu et al, 2013).]]

[[File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_14.png|thumb|400px|{{figure number|14}}Balneotherapy in medicinal/mineral waters.<ref name=Ngha /><ref name=Nghb />]]

The Group1 springs are applied in balneotherapy– the act of treating diseases by taking bath in mineralized water. During the bath ([[:File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_14.png|Figure 14]]), sodium chloride gets into the keratose layer of the epidermise through osmosis. The bath can be done in basins or bath tubes.

The Group1 springs are applied in balneotherapy– the act of treating diseases by taking bath in mineralized water. During the bath ([[:File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_14.png|Figure 14]]), sodium chloride gets into the keratose layer of the epidermise through osmosis. The bath can be done in basins or bath tubes.

# Pareses and atrophy of muscles,

# Pareses and atrophy of muscles,

# Skin diseases: psoriases and allergies and

# Skin diseases: psoriases and allergies and

# Psychosomatic diseases (Nghargbu et al, 2013).

# Psychosomatic diseases.<ref name=Ngha /><ref name=Nghb />

However, balneokinezytherapy should not be applied under the under-listed conditions:

However, balneokinezytherapy should not be applied under the under-listed conditions:

# Cancer,

# Cancer,

# Active tuberculosis and

# Active tuberculosis and

# Pregnancy (Nghargbu et al, 2013).

# Pregnancy.<ref name=Ngha /><ref name=Nghb />

Mineralized water from these springs can be used in shower baths in which the water is pressurized into a jet of water. This can be applied in the treatment of: high arterial blood pressure, nervous over-excitability and flabbiness of skin.

Mineralized water from these springs can be used in shower baths in which the water is pressurized into a jet of water. This can be applied in the treatment of: high arterial blood pressure, nervous over-excitability and flabbiness of skin.

Another form of application is in balneological inhalations in which the mineralized water is dispersed in a carrier to form an aerosol. According to Nghargbu et al (2013), inhalation of the aerosol is used in clearing the respiratory tract and in the treatment of sore throat, chronic inflammation of the trachea (tracheitis) and chronic inflammation of the bronchia (bronchitis).

Another form of application is in balneological inhalations in which the mineralized water is dispersed in a carrier to form an aerosol. According to Nghargbu et al,<ref name=Ngha /><ref name=Nghb /> inhalation of the aerosol is used in clearing the respiratory tract and in the treatment of sore throat, chronic inflammation of the trachea (tracheitis) and chronic inflammation of the bronchia (bronchitis).

Furthermore, these springs are applied in krenotherapy– treatment of diseases by drinking saline water. This is used in the treatment of chronic inflammation and subacidity of stomach, heavy metal poisoning and constipation. Additionally, saline water can be used in flushing the mouth to remove bacteria and secretions. However, krenotherapy should not be used on a patient with poor blood circulation, poor performance of kidney, active ulcer of stomach, diarrhoea and ulcer of duodenum (Nghargbu et al, 2013).

Furthermore, these springs are applied in krenotherapy– treatment of diseases by drinking saline water. This is used in the treatment of chronic inflammation and subacidity of stomach, heavy metal poisoning and constipation. Additionally, saline water can be used in flushing the mouth to remove bacteria and secretions. However, krenotherapy should not be used on a patient with poor blood circulation, poor performance of kidney, active ulcer of stomach, diarrhoea and ulcer of duodenum.<ref name=Ngha /><ref name=Nghb />

Conversely, the Group 2 springs are isotonic and compatible with the osmotic pressure of the human blood. They are used the same way as the Group 1 springs although their action is mild (Nghargbu et al, 2013).

Conversely, the Group 2 springs are isotonic and compatible with the osmotic pressure of the human blood. They are used the same way as the Group 1 springs although their action is mild.<ref name=Ngha /><ref name=Nghb />

===Bentonite===

===Bentonite===

[[File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_15.png|thumb|400px|{{figure number|15}}Application of bentonite cream on the face (after Nghargbu et al,2013).]]

[[File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_15.png|thumb|400px|{{figure number|15}}Application of bentonite cream on the face.<ref name=Ngha /><ref name=Nghb />]]

Bentonite is an absorbent aluminum phylosilicate rock containing mostly montmorillonite. It is formed mainly from volcanic ash. The name comes from the largest known deposit of bentonite clay located in Fort Benton, Wyoming, USA. It is a unique clay due to its ability to produce electronegative charge when hydrated giving it the ability to attract and neutralize toxins which are electropositive. When mixed with water, bentonite rapidly swells open like a highly porous sponge, making the toxins and heavy metal to be drawn in through electrical attraction without leaching away any of its beneficial elements. This phenomenon prevents toxic molecules from passing through the walls of the intestines and entering the bloodstream; instead, they are eliminated from the body through the kidneys.

Bentonite is an absorbent aluminum phylosilicate rock containing mostly montmorillonite. It is formed mainly from volcanic ash. The name comes from the largest known deposit of bentonite clay located in Fort Benton, Wyoming, USA. It is a unique clay due to its ability to produce electronegative charge when hydrated giving it the ability to attract and neutralize toxins which are electropositive. When mixed with water, bentonite rapidly swells open like a highly porous sponge, making the toxins and heavy metal to be drawn in through electrical attraction without leaching away any of its beneficial elements. This phenomenon prevents toxic molecules from passing through the walls of the intestines and entering the bloodstream; instead, they are eliminated from the body through the kidneys.

Kaolin is made up of the clay mineral, kaolinite with the chemical composition Al2Si2O5(OH)4. Kaolinite is a layered silicate mineral, with one tetrahedral sheet linked through oxygen atoms to one octahedral sheet of alumina octahedra. It is also known as China clay. Kaolinite has low shrink-swell capacity and low cation exchange capacity (Selinus et al, 2013). It is a soft, earthy, usually white mineral produced by the chemical weathering of aluminosilicate minerals such as feldspars. In many parts of the world, it is colored pink, orange or red by iron oxide, giving it a distinct rust hue. Lighter concentrations yield white, yellow or light orange colours (Selinus et al, 2013).

Kaolin is made up of the clay mineral, kaolinite with the chemical composition Al2Si2O5(OH)4. Kaolinite is a layered silicate mineral, with one tetrahedral sheet linked through oxygen atoms to one octahedral sheet of alumina octahedra. It is also known as China clay. Kaolinite has low shrink-swell capacity and low cation exchange capacity (Selinus et al, 2013). It is a soft, earthy, usually white mineral produced by the chemical weathering of aluminosilicate minerals such as feldspars. In many parts of the world, it is colored pink, orange or red by iron oxide, giving it a distinct rust hue. Lighter concentrations yield white, yellow or light orange colours (Selinus et al, 2013).

Kaolin is used for the treatment of mild-to-moderate diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera. It is also used in combination products for the treatment of inflammation and soreness of the mouth. Such products are also used for the treatment of ulcers and inflammation of the large intestine (Nghargbu et al, 2013).

Kaolin is used for the treatment of mild-to-moderate diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera. It is also used in combination products for the treatment of inflammation and soreness of the mouth. Such products are also used for the treatment of ulcers and inflammation of the large intestine.<ref name=Ngha /><ref name=Nghb />

===Milk of Magnesia===

===Milk of Magnesia===

*  

*  

* Pradyot, P., 2002. Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals. McGraw-Hill, New York, 186p.

* Pradyot, P., 2002. Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals. McGraw-Hill, New York, 186p.

* Schamschula, R.C. and Barmes, D.E., 1981. Fluoride and health: Dental Caries, Osteoporosis and Cardiovascular Disease. Annual Review of Nutrient, 1, 427–35.

* Schamschula, R.C. and Barmes, D.E., 1981. Fluoride and health: Dental Caries, Osteoporosis and Cardiovascular Disease. Annual Review of Nutrient, 1, 427–35.