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Super basin is a modern term referring to sedimentary basins where the cumulative production and the remaining recoverable resources are higher than 5 billion BOE.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /><ref name=Sternbach_2020 /> They are characterized by having more than one petroleum system, a solid field infrastructure and abundant data sets for studies. The access to the market is also an essential element in this definition.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /><ref name=Sternbach_2020>Sternbach, C.A., 2020, Super basin thinking: Methods to explore and revitalize the world’s greatest petroleum basins: AAPG Bulletin, v. 104, p. 2463-2506</ref>

Super basin is a modern term referring to sedimentary basins where the cumulative production and the remaining recoverable resources are higher than 5 billion BOE.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /><ref name=Sternbach_2020 /> They are characterized by having more than one petroleum system, a solid field infrastructure and abundant data sets for studies. The access to the market is also an essential element in this definition.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /><ref name=Sternbach_2020>Sternbach, C.A., 2020, Super basin thinking: Methods to explore and revitalize the world’s greatest petroleum basins: AAPG Bulletin, v. 104, p. 2463-2506</ref>

In a world demanding more energy every decade, ideas involving lower costs and reduced environmental impacts are crucial to optimize hydrocarbon production. Although certain favorable geological conditions are needed for basins to become super basins, a key for this transformation includes changes in paradigms and technology advances, which increase the prospectivity and production of fields.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /><ref name=Sternbach_2020 />

In a world demanding more energy every decade, ideas involving lower costs and reduced environmental impacts are crucial to optimize hydrocarbon production. Although certain favorable geological conditions are needed for basins to become super basins, a key for this transformation includes changes in paradigms and technology advances, which increase the prospectivity and production of fields.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /><ref name=Sternbach_2020 />

==Geology of super basins==

==Geology of super basins==

Oil and gas industry activity depends on technical, environmental, commercial and operational factors; among these, geological challenges and science innovations play an important role. When unconventional resources were introduced to geological models in mature basins, and horizontal drilling was an economic alternative for reaching reservoirs, this industry was propelled in markets. The Super Basin concept reflects the necessity of new insights into mature areas and large fields production, which implies reviewing previous paradigms and creating and adapting others.<ref name=Sternbach_2020 />

Oil and gas industry activity depends on technical, environmental, commercial and operational factors; among these, geological challenges and science innovations play an important role. When unconventional resources were introduced to geological models in mature basins, and horizontal drilling was an economic alternative for reaching reservoirs, this industry was propelled in markets. The Super Basin concept reflects the necessity of new insights into mature areas and large fields production, which implies reviewing previous paradigms and creating and adapting others.<ref name=Sternbach_2020 />

===Tectonic setting===

===Tectonic setting===

Super Basins are associated with rifts, passive margins, foreland and intracratonic tectonic settings. Most are Mesozoic-aged (J-K), although there are Paleozoic-age examples.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /><ref name=Sternbach_2020 /> Understanding the stratigraphy and timing of these settings help predict the localization of the petroleum system components.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /><ref name=Sternbach_2020 /> Globally, 31 basins have been identified within the super basin category so far ([[:file:GiacomoneEtAlFigure1.jpg|Figure 1]]).<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /><ref name=Sternbach_2020 /> Many of them (23) are in onshore locations, such as the Permian Basin in the United States and Neuquén Basin in Argentina.<ref name=Sternbach_2020 /> However, significant offshore basins like the Gulf of Mexico and the North Sea Basin are also included in this category. Based on the incremental recoverable oil (billions of barrels), super basins are grouped in regions. Leading the list is the Middle East, followed by North America, Latin America, Africa, Commonwealth of Independent States, Far East, Australasia and Europe.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 />  

[[file:GiacomoneEtAlFigure1.jpg|center|framed|{{figure number|1}}Location map of world’s super basins.  31 tier one global super basins (those with more than 5 billion BOE of cumulative production and remaining recoverable oil and gas) are shown in green. Tier two super basins (those with less than 5 billion BOE of cumulative production or remaining recoverable oil and gas) are shown in light blue. DwGoM = deep-water Gulf of Mexico; E&P = exploration and production; WCSB = Western Canada Sedimentary Basin.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020>Fryklund, B., and P. Stark, 2020, Super basins-New paradigm for oil and gas supply: AAPG Bulletin, v. 104, p. 2507-2519.</ref>]]

===Stratigraphy===

===Stratigraphy===

Large clinoform geometries (100s to 1000s m) are a classic feature in many super basins, like in Neuquén, West Siberia, Alaska North Slope, Permian, and Western Canadian basins. These geometries are a response of the depositional environments and the configuration of the basin in which they occur. The recognition and interpretation of these clinoforms can lead to a better understanding of the different elements of the petroleum system, e.g. the bottomsets of the clinoforms can be associated with deep-water shales with source rock potential and associated turbidites that might act as reservoirs.

Large clinoform geometries (100s to 1000s m) are a classic feature in many super basins, like in Neuquén, West Siberia, Alaska North Slope, Permian, and Western Canadian basins. These geometries are a response of the depositional environments and the configuration of the basin in which they occur. The recognition and interpretation of these clinoforms can lead to a better understanding of the different elements of the petroleum system, e.g. the bottomsets of the clinoforms can be associated with deep-water shales with source rock potential and associated turbidites that might act as reservoirs.

===New technologies===

===New technologies===

Sophisticated and innovative technologies were the result of deep studies into known and new reservoirs looking for economically viable resources. Vast amounts of data can now be acquired, processed and interpreted rapidly. Geoscientists and engineers developed novel skills, software and tools that played a critical role in the super basin definition, the discovery of economic sweet spots and increasing recoveries. New interpretations and statistical analysis had an impact in geological models, workflows and the definition of rock properties.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /> High resolution 3D seismic volume and seismic imaging data results in more detailed maps, improving targets delineation and drilling decisions.<ref name=Sternbach_2020 /> Advances in drilling efficiency and well design, such as horizontal wells in unconventional onshore reservoirs and improved drilling in deep-water areas, rejuvenated several targets, increasing their recovery factors.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /> Improved completion methods and multistage hydraulic fractures were revolutionary techniques in the unconventional realm that remarkably increased the oil and gas production rates.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /> Remote access reduced operational time and risks and allowed insights in complex areas.<ref name=Sternbach_2020 /> Comparing geologic architectures leads to the study of analogs, which is an extra component that helps emerge super basins and find unexplored super basins.<ref name=Sternbach_2020 />

Sophisticated and innovative technologies were the result of deep studies into known and new reservoirs looking for economically viable resources. Vast amounts of data can now be acquired, processed and interpreted rapidly. Geoscientists and engineers developed novel skills, software and tools that played a critical role in the super basin definition, the discovery of economic sweet spots and increasing recoveries. New interpretations and statistical analysis had an impact in geological models, workflows and the definition of rock properties.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /> High resolution 3D seismic volume and seismic imaging data results in more detailed maps, improving targets delineation and drilling decisions.<ref name=Sternbach_2020 /> Advances in drilling efficiency and well design, such as horizontal wells in unconventional onshore reservoirs and improved drilling in deep-water areas, rejuvenated several targets, increasing their recovery factors.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /> Improved completion methods and multistage hydraulic fractures were revolutionary techniques in the unconventional realm that remarkably increased the oil and gas production rates.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /> Remote access reduced operational time and risks and allowed insights in complex areas.<ref name=Sternbach_2020 /> Comparing geologic architectures leads to the study of analogs, which is an extra component that helps emerge super basins and find unexplored super basins.<ref name=Sternbach_2020 />

It is important to clarify that not every basin will become a super basin by the merits of technology only, and that there should always be a geological condition that allows this transformation.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /><ref name=Sternbach_2020 />

It is important to clarify that not every basin will become a super basin by the merits of technology only, and that there should always be a geological condition that allows this transformation.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /><ref name=Sternbach_2020 />

===Economy and market===

===Economy and market===

Undoubtedly benefits encompassed with this larger-scale and three-dimensional way of thinking involve the opening of more job positions and funding for research in universities.<ref name=Sternbach_2020 /> Scientists need financial support to investigate these new concepts and develop new technologies to explore super basins.<ref name=Sternbach_2020 /> Advances in technology contribute to decreasing operational costs.<ref name=Sternbach_2020 /> Well-founded infrastructure requires operating and service companies working efficiently, which involves more people working both at the field and in offices.<ref name=Sternbach_2020 /> As part of the solid infrastructure, the super basin initiative implies that subsurface and above-ground interests work together.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /><ref name=Sternbach_2020 />

Undoubtedly benefits encompassed with this larger-scale and three-dimensional way of thinking involve the opening of more job positions and funding for research in universities.<ref name=Sternbach_2020 /> Scientists need financial support to investigate these new concepts and develop new technologies to explore super basins.<ref name=Sternbach_2020 /> Advances in technology contribute to decreasing operational costs.<ref name=Sternbach_2020 /> Well-founded infrastructure requires operating and service companies working efficiently, which involves more people working both at the field and in offices.<ref name=Sternbach_2020 /> As part of the solid infrastructure, the super basin initiative implies that subsurface and above-ground interests work together.<ref name=Fryklundandstark_2020 /><ref name=Sternbach_2020 />

==Examples==

==Examples==

===Neuquén Basin===

===Neuquén Basin===

In central-west Argentina ([[:file:GiacomoneEtAlFigure2.jpg|Figure 2]]), Neuquén Basin has 14 billion BOE discovered, an unconventional potential of 91.5 TCF and 14.3 billion bbl of oil as estimated resources in the Vaca Muerta Fm (unconventional play).<ref name=Veigaetal_2020 /> Resources are distributed in several petroleum systems and across over 6000 m of sedimentary thickness.<ref name=Veigaetal_2020 />

[[file:GiacomoneEtAlFigure2.jpg|center|framed|{{figure number|2}}Geological regions of the Neuquén Basin.<ref name=Veigaetal_2020>Veiga, R.D., Vergani, G.D., Brisson, I.E, Macellari, C.E., Leanza, H.A., 2020, The Neuquén Super Basin: AAPG Bulletin, v.104, p. 2521-2555.</ref>]]

Sedimentary basin infill overlying a Devonian to Lower Triassic Gondwanan basement is summarized in five main stages: (1) Late Triassic to Early Jurassic synrift, (2) Early and Middle Jurassic subsidence, (3) Late Jurassic inversion, (4) Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous subsidence, and (5) Late Cretaceous foreland ([[:file:GiacomoneEtAlFigure3.jpg|Figure 3]]).<ref name=Veigaetal_2020 /><ref name=Llambiasetal_2018>Llambías, E. J., M. Schiuma, D. Velo, M. Barrionuevo, D. Lenge, F. Pángaro, R. Corbera, O. Carbone, and G. Hinterwimmer, 2018, Reservorios del Grupo Choiyoi y Precuyano, in M. Schiuma, G. Hinterwimmer, and G. D. Vergani, eds., Rocas reservorio de las cuencas productivas de Argentina, 2nd ed. [in Spanish]: X Congreso de Exploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Mendoza, Argentina, November 5–9, 2018, p. 325–371.</ref><ref name=Ramosetal_2020>Ramos, V. A., M. Naipauer, H. A. Leanza, and M. E. Sigismondi, 2020, An exceptional tectonic setting along the Andean continental margin, in D. Minisini, M. Fantín, I. Lanusse Noguera, and H. A. Leanza, eds., Integrated geology of unconventionals: The case of the Vaca Muerta play, Argentina: AAPG Memoir 121, p. 25–38, doi:10.1306/13682222M1202855.</ref>

Sedimentary basin infill overlying a Devonian to Lower Triassic Gondwanan basement is summarized in five main stages: (1) Late Triassic to Early Jurassic synrift, (2) Early and Middle Jurassic subsidence, (3) Late Jurassic inversion, (4) Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous subsidence, and (5) Late Cretaceous foreland ([[:file:GiacomoneEtAlFigure3.jpg|Figure 3]]).<ref name=Veigaetal_2020 /><ref name=Llambiasetal_2018>Llambías, E. J., M. Schiuma, D. Velo, M. Barrionuevo, D. Lenge, F. Pángaro, R. Corbera, O. Carbone, and G. Hinterwimmer, 2018, Reservorios del Grupo Choiyoi y Precuyano, in M. Schiuma, G. Hinterwimmer, and G. D. Vergani, eds., Rocas reservorio de las cuencas productivas de Argentina, 2nd ed. [in Spanish]: X Congreso de Exploración y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Mendoza, Argentina, November 5–9, 2018, p. 325–371.</ref><ref name=Ramosetal_2020>Ramos, V. A., M. Naipauer, H. A. Leanza, and M. E. Sigismondi, 2020, An exceptional tectonic setting along the Andean continental margin, in D. Minisini, M. Fantín, I. Lanusse Noguera, and H. A. Leanza, eds., Integrated geology of unconventionals: The case of the Vaca Muerta play, Argentina: AAPG Memoir 121, p. 25–38, doi:10.1306/13682222M1202855.</ref>

Successive Mesozoic transgressions entering the basin from the west deposited several source rocks, including the Early Jurassic Los Molles Formation (TOC 1%–7%), the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous world-class source rock Vaca Muerta Formation (2-9% TOC, hi-quality oil-prone marine kerogen) and the Early Cretaceous Agrio Formation (TOC 2%–5%). Superimposed petroleum systems, combined with different structural settings, gave rise to numerous conventional plays.<ref name=Veigaetal_2020 /> Conventional plays can be grouped by regions: Hincul High (Jurassic reservoirs in pre-tertiary structures sourced by the Los Molles Fm), Fold Belt (Cretaceous reservoirs on structural traps sourced by Vaca Muerta and Agrio Fms), Basin Center (Cretaceous reservoirs on stratigraphic traps sourced by Vaca Muerta Fm), and the Platform play  (Cretaceous reservoirs on stratigraphic traps sourced by Vaca Muerta Fm).<ref name=Verganietal_2011>Vergani, G., C. Arregui, and O. Carbone, 2011, Sistemas petroleros y tipos de entrampamientos en la Cuenca Neuquina, in H. A. Leanza, C. Arregui, O. Carbone, J. C. Danieli, and J. M. Valiés, eds., Geología y recursos naturales de la provincia del Neuquén [in Spanish]: Relatorio del XVIII Congreso Geológico Argentino, 2 al 6 de Mayo de 1011, Neuquén: Buenos Aires, Asociación Geológica Argentina, p. 645 656.</ref>

Successive Mesozoic transgressions entering the basin from the west deposited several source rocks, including the Early Jurassic Los Molles Formation (TOC 1%–7%), the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous world-class source rock Vaca Muerta Formation (2-9% TOC, hi-quality oil-prone marine kerogen) and the Early Cretaceous Agrio Formation (TOC 2%–5%). Superimposed petroleum systems, combined with different structural settings, gave rise to numerous conventional plays.<ref name=Veigaetal_2020 /> Conventional plays can be grouped by regions: Hincul High (Jurassic reservoirs in pre-tertiary structures sourced by the Los Molles Fm), Fold Belt (Cretaceous reservoirs on structural traps sourced by Vaca Muerta and Agrio Fms), Basin Center (Cretaceous reservoirs on stratigraphic traps sourced by Vaca Muerta Fm), and the Platform play  (Cretaceous reservoirs on stratigraphic traps sourced by Vaca Muerta Fm).<ref name=Verganietal_2011>Vergani, G., C. Arregui, and O. Carbone, 2011, Sistemas petroleros y tipos de entrampamientos en la Cuenca Neuquina, in H. A. Leanza, C. Arregui, O. Carbone, J. C. Danieli, and J. M. Valiés, eds., Geología y recursos naturales de la provincia del Neuquén [in Spanish]: Relatorio del XVIII Congreso Geológico Argentino, 2 al 6 de Mayo de 1011, Neuquén: Buenos Aires, Asociación Geológica Argentina, p. 645 656.</ref>

A wide variety of productive reservoirs, embracing clastic, carbonate, and igneous rocks were formed in different tectono-sedimentary cycles. Seals are evaporites associated with desiccation events, although highly cemented layers of clastic units also work effectively. Traps are related to (1) structural types, like anticlinal closures in four directions and faults with closures by juxtaposition; (2) stratigraphic types, associated with unconformities of the sedimentary infill; (3) diagenetic types, related to variations of capillarity; and (4) lateral and vertical changes of facies with primary permeability barriers ([[:file:GiacomoneEtAlFigure3.jpg|Figure 3]]).<ref name=Veigaetal_2020 />

A wide variety of productive reservoirs, embracing clastic, carbonate, and igneous rocks were formed in different tectono-sedimentary cycles. Seals are evaporites associated with desiccation events, although highly cemented layers of clastic units also work effectively. Traps are related to (1) structural types, like anticlinal closures in four directions and faults with closures by juxtaposition; (2) stratigraphic types, associated with unconformities of the sedimentary infill; (3) diagenetic types, related to variations of capillarity; and (4) lateral and vertical changes of facies with primary permeability barriers ([[:file:GiacomoneEtAlFigure3.jpg|Figure 3]]).<ref name=Veigaetal_2020 />

The Neuquén Basin has gone through three main phases of development: conventional, tight, and unconventional. After the gas peak production achieved in 2004, production declined. However, when production from tight reservoirs and lately from shale gas and oil were added, this trend started to change in a reverse and positive direction. Up to date, a total of 4200 conventional exploratory wells have been drilled in the basin, with a high success rate of approximately 54% (considering multiple objectives on wells).<ref name=Veigaetal_2020 />

The Neuquén Basin has gone through three main phases of development: conventional, tight, and unconventional. After the gas peak production achieved in 2004, production declined. However, when production from tight reservoirs and lately from shale gas and oil were added, this trend started to change in a reverse and positive direction. Up to date, a total of 4200 conventional exploratory wells have been drilled in the basin, with a high success rate of approximately 54% (considering multiple objectives on wells).<ref name=Veigaetal_2020 />

===Northern Gulf of Mexico===

===Northern Gulf of Mexico===

Located in the Offshore United States, the northern GOM is a good example of a super basin in a salt-tectonic dominated setting ([[:file:GiacomoneEtAlFigure4.jpg|Figure 4]]). Its cumulative production is 60 BOE and it stores more than 100 BOE. It includes several petroleum systems representing a wide variety of depositional environments (deep water to aeolian domains) and six tectonostratigraphic phases ([[:file:GiacomoneEtAlFigure5.jpg|Figure 5]]), three during the Mesozoic and three in the Cenozoic.<ref name=Sneddenetal_2020 />

file:GiacomoneEtAlFigure4.jpg|{{figure number|4}}Location map of the United States (northern) Gulf of Mexico Super Basin.<ref name=Ewingandgalloway_2019>Ewing, T.E.;  Galloway, W.E, 2019, Evolution of the Northern Gulf of Mexico Sedimentary Basin. The sedimentary basins of the United States and Canada (Second edition), Chapter 16, p. 627-694.</ref>

file:GiacomoneEtAlFigure5.jpg|{{figure number|5}}Tectonostratigraphic phases in the Gulf of Mexico Basin.<ref name=Sneddenetal_2020>Snedden, J.W., Cunningham, R.C., Virdell, J.W., 2020, The northern Gulf of Mexico offshore super basin: Reservoirs, source rocks, seals, traps, and successes: AAPG Bulletin, v. 104, p. 2603-2642.</ref>

</gallery>

Three major Mesozoic source rocks deposited during transgressive events. The Oxfordian Smackover Formation has limestones and marls with an average TOC of 3% and a type II kerogen. The Tithonian Cotton Valley- Bossier and Haynesville-Buckner super sequences are characterized by carbonate and some siliciclastic facies, where the TOC ranges 5 to 20% and kerogen is mostly type II. The Cenomanian-Turonian Eagle Ford- Tuscaloosa super sequence has black shales and 4-7% TOC. These rocks also work as unconventional reservoirs. Three main reservoirs are present in this basin. The Wilcox play (Cenozoic), characterized by its high porosity (15%-23%) and permeability (10-100 md), and reservoirs of Jurassic - Cretaceous age that include limestones from James and Andrew Formations and sandstones from the Norphlet Formation, the last one being the largest play in the basin. Retention of oil and gas is conducted by shales, limestones and evaporite seal rocks. Traps occur in diverse styles due to salt tectonics (salt canopy, faulting, diapirs, turtle structures).<ref name=Sneddenetal_2020 />

Three major Mesozoic source rocks deposited during transgressive events. The Oxfordian Smackover Formation has limestones and marls with an average TOC of 3% and a type II kerogen. The Tithonian Cotton Valley- Bossier and Haynesville-Buckner super sequences are characterized by carbonate and some siliciclastic facies, where the TOC ranges 5 to 20% and kerogen is mostly type II. The Cenomanian-Turonian Eagle Ford- Tuscaloosa super sequence has black shales and 4-7% TOC. These rocks also work as unconventional reservoirs. Three main reservoirs are present in this basin. The Wilcox play (Cenozoic), characterized by its high porosity (15%-23%) and permeability (10-100 md), and reservoirs of Jurassic - Cretaceous age that include limestones from James and Andrew Formations and sandstones from the Norphlet Formation, the last one being the largest play in the basin. Retention of oil and gas is conducted by shales, limestones and evaporite seal rocks. Traps occur in diverse styles due to salt tectonics (salt canopy, faulting, diapirs, turtle structures).<ref name=Sneddenetal_2020 />