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Carbonate sedimentary rocks classification (view source)

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In oil and gas industry, classifying carbonate rocks is a major step in core and thin section description. Two classification systems have been widely used in the industry:  
 
In oil and gas industry, classifying carbonate rocks is a major step in core and thin section description. Two classification systems have been widely used in the industry:  
−
# Folk (1959,1962) Classification  
+
# Folk (1959<ref name=Flk1959>Folk, R. L., 1959, [https://archives.datapages.com/data/bulletns/1957-60/data/pg/0043/0001/0000/0001.htm Practical petrographic classification of limestones]: AAPG Bulletin, v. 43, p. 1–38.</ref>, 1962<ref name=Flk1962>Folk, R. L., 1962, [https://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/carbona2/data/a038/a038/0001/0050/0062.htm Spectral subdivision of limestone types], ''in'' W. E. Ham, ed., Classification of carbonate Rocks-A Symposium: [https://archives.datapages.com/data/alt-browse/aapg-special-volumes/m1.htm AAPG Memoir 1], p. 62-84.</ref>) Classification  
−
# Dunham (1962) Classification  
+
# Dunham (1962<ref name=Dnhm>Dunham, R. J., 1962, [https://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/carbona2/data/a038/a038/0001/0100/0108.htm Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional texture], ''in'' W. E. Ham, ed., Classification of Carbonate Rocks: [https://archives.datapages.com/data/alt-browse/aapg-special-volumes/m1.htm AAPG Memoir 1], p. 108–121.</ref>) Classification  
 
Both classifications provide an indication of depositional energy setting and reservoir quality.
 
Both classifications provide an indication of depositional energy setting and reservoir quality.
    
==History==
 
==History==
 
Various classification systems had been proposed for both academia and industry purposes:
 
Various classification systems had been proposed for both academia and industry purposes:
−
* Wentworth (1922) [a]
+
* Wentworth (1922){{note|a}} [a]
 
* Bramkamp & Powers (1958)
 
* Bramkamp & Powers (1958)
−
* Folk (1959,1962)
+
* Folk (1959, 1962)<ref name=Flk1959 /><ref name=Flk1962 />
−
* Dunham (1962)
+
* Dunham (1962)<ref name=Dnhm />
 
* Leignton & Pendexter (1962)
 
* Leignton & Pendexter (1962)
 
* Todd (1966)
 
* Todd (1966)
−
* Embry & Klovan (1971)
+
* Embry & Klovan (1971)<ref name=EmbryKlvn>Embry, A. F., and J. E. Klovan, 1971, A late Devonian reef tract on northeastern Banks Island, N.W.T: Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology, v. 19, no. 4, p. 730–781.</ref>
 
* Wright (1992)
 
* Wright (1992)
 
* Hallsworth & Knox (1999)
 
* Hallsworth & Knox (1999)
−
Among all of the attempts, Folk (1959, 1962) and Dunham (1962) extended by Embry & Klovan (1971) classifications were widely accepted.  
+
Among all of the attempts, the Folk<ref name=Flk1959 /><ref name=Flk1962 /> and Dunham<ref name=Dnhm />, extended by Embry & Klovan<ref name=EmbryKlvn />, classifications were widely accepted.  
    
==Folk Classification==  
 
==Folk Classification==  
 
===Folk’s Criteria===
 
===Folk’s Criteria===
−
Folk classification system is based on three basic components of limestone:  
+
[[w:Folk classification|Folk's classification]] system is based on three basic components of limestone:  
 
* Allochems (sediment grains): framework component of the rock. There are four major types of allochems in Folk system: intraclasts, oolites, fossils, and pellets.  
 
* Allochems (sediment grains): framework component of the rock. There are four major types of allochems in Folk system: intraclasts, oolites, fossils, and pellets.  
 
* Microcrystalline lime mud: matrix component of the rock < 4 μm in size.  
 
* Microcrystalline lime mud: matrix component of the rock < 4 μm in size.  
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Folk defined a fourth family based on in situ organic growth deposits: biolithite.[d]
 
Folk defined a fourth family based on in situ organic growth deposits: biolithite.[d]
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[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure1.png|center|framed|{{figure number|1}}Folk classification system for carbonate rock (1959) [1]]]
+
<gallery mode=packed heights=400px widths=400px>
−
+
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure1.png|center|framed|{{figure number|1}}Folk classification system for carbonate rock (1959)
 +
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure2.png|center|framed|{{figure number|2}}Folk subdivisions of major families
 +
</gallery>
 +
 
 
===Subdivision of Major Families===
 
===Subdivision of Major Families===
 
Family I and II of Folk’s system could be subdivided based on the type of allochems presented. The most important types of allochems are: intraclasts, oolites, fossils, and pellets respectively. A total of eight subdivisions are diagrammatically presented in Figure 2.[e]   
 
Family I and II of Folk’s system could be subdivided based on the type of allochems presented. The most important types of allochems are: intraclasts, oolites, fossils, and pellets respectively. A total of eight subdivisions are diagrammatically presented in Figure 2.[e]   
−
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure2.png|center|framed|{{figure number|2}}Folk subdivisions of major families [2]]]
     −
Family I subdivisions
+
====Family I subdivisions====
 
* Intrasparite: consists of intraclasts with sparry calcite cement (Figure 3).
 
* Intrasparite: consists of intraclasts with sparry calcite cement (Figure 3).
 
* Oosparite: consists of oolites with sparry calcite cement (Figure 4).
 
* Oosparite: consists of oolites with sparry calcite cement (Figure 4).
 
* Biosparite: consists of fossils with sparry calcite cement (Figure 5).
 
* Biosparite: consists of fossils with sparry calcite cement (Figure 5).
 
* Pelsparite: consists of pellets with sparry calcite cement (Figure 6).
 
* Pelsparite: consists of pellets with sparry calcite cement (Figure 6).
−
Family II subdivisions
+
<gallery mode=packed heights=300px widths=300px>
 +
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure3.png|{{figure number|3}}Intrasparite 
 +
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure4.png|{{figure number|4}}Oosparite 
 +
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure5.png|{{figure number|5}}Biosparite
 +
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure6.png|{{figure number|6}}Pelsparite
 +
</gallery>
 +
 
 +
====Family II subdivisions====
 
* Intramicrite: consists of intraclasts with microcrystalline matrix (Figure 7).
 
* Intramicrite: consists of intraclasts with microcrystalline matrix (Figure 7).
 
* Oomicrite: consists of oolites with microcrystalline matrix (Figure 8).
 
* Oomicrite: consists of oolites with microcrystalline matrix (Figure 8).
 
* Biomicrite: consists of fossils with microcrystalline matrix (Figure 9).
 
* Biomicrite: consists of fossils with microcrystalline matrix (Figure 9).
 
* Pelmicrite: consists of pellets with microcrystalline matrix (Figure 10).
 
* Pelmicrite: consists of pellets with microcrystalline matrix (Figure 10).
 +
<gallery mode=packed heights=300px widths=300px>
 +
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure7.png|{{figure number|7}}Intramicrite<ref>[http://sepmstrata.org/microscopic_gallery_details.aspx?gid=165&pg=1&gcid=9 SEPM Strata Microscopic Gallery]</ref>
 +
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure8.png|{{figure number|8}}Oomicrite<ref>[http://www.sepmstrata.org/microscopic_gallery_details.aspx?gid=207&pg=3&gcid=11 SEPM Strata Microscopic Gallery]</ref>
 +
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure9.png|{{figure number|9}}Biomicrite
 +
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure10.png|{{figure number|10}}Pelmicrite
 +
</gallery>
    
===Depositional Energy Setting and Reservoir Quality Indications===
 
===Depositional Energy Setting and Reservoir Quality Indications===
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Family II & III rocks are formed in low-energy settings and show poor reservoir quality. They usually formed in deep water and restricted settings where the current is not strong enough to winnow away the lime mud.[g] [h]     
 
Family II & III rocks are formed in low-energy settings and show poor reservoir quality. They usually formed in deep water and restricted settings where the current is not strong enough to winnow away the lime mud.[g] [h]     
   −
===Spectral Subdivision of Limestones===  
+
===Spectral Subdivision of Limestones===
 +
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure11.png|thumbnail|500px|{{Figure number|11}}]]
 
In 1962, Folk proposed the spectral subdivision. He subdivided the 3 major families into eight types forming a sequential transitional spectrum of energy level in which the first type represents the lowest energy, and the last type represents the highest energy (Figure 11).
 
In 1962, Folk proposed the spectral subdivision. He subdivided the 3 major families into eight types forming a sequential transitional spectrum of energy level in which the first type represents the lowest energy, and the last type represents the highest energy (Figure 11).
−
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure11.png|thumbnail|Figure 11. [11]] ]]
     −
Criteria
+
====Criteria====
−
• For rocks dominated by lime mud, Folk considered the percentage of allochems presented.   
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* For rocks dominated by lime mud, Folk considered the percentage of allochems presented.   
−
• For rocks dominated by sparry calcite cement, Folk considered the sorting and rounding of allochems presented.  
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* For rocks dominated by sparry calcite cement, Folk considered the sorting and rounding of allochems presented.  
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Subdivisions
+
 
 +
====Subdivisions====
 
Folk proposed a total of eight types representing a gradational transition of energy level from low to high.  Considering, for instance, fossils to be the major allochems in the system[i], the sequential subdivisions are:     
 
Folk proposed a total of eight types representing a gradational transition of energy level from low to high.  Considering, for instance, fossils to be the major allochems in the system[i], the sequential subdivisions are:     
−
1. Micrites and dismicrites: rocks consist entirely of lime mud.
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# Micrites and dismicrites: rocks consist entirely of lime mud.
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2. Fossiliferous micrites and dismicrites: rocks consist of 1-10% allochems.
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# Fossiliferous micrites and dismicrites: rocks consist of 1-10% allochems.
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3. Sparse biomicrites: rocks consist of 10-50% allochems floating in the matrix.
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# Sparse biomicrites: rocks consist of 10-50% allochems floating in the matrix.
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4. Packed biomicrites: rocks consist of > 50% packed allochems.  
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# Packed biomicrites: rocks consist of > 50% packed allochems.  
−
5. Poorly washed biosparites: rocks consist of almost equal amounts of lime mud and sparry calcite cement in which the current was not strong enough to winnow away all lime mud particles.  
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# Poorly washed biosparites: rocks consist of almost equal amounts of lime mud and sparry calcite cement in which the current was not strong enough to winnow away all lime mud particles.  
−
6. Unsorted biosparites: poorly sorted rocks in which the current was strong enough to winnow away lime mud particles, but the allochems are still not sorted.  
+
# Unsorted biosparites: poorly sorted rocks in which the current was strong enough to winnow away lime mud particles, but the allochems are still not sorted.  
−
7. Sorted biosparites: well-sorted rocks in which the allochems are still not well-rounded and abraded.
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# Sorted biosparites: well-sorted rocks in which the allochems are still not well-rounded and abraded.
−
8. Rounded biosparites: well-sorted and well-rounded rocks in which the allochems underwent intense abrasion.
+
# Rounded biosparites: well-sorted and well-rounded rocks in which the allochems underwent intense abrasion.
    
==Dunham Classification==  
 
==Dunham Classification==  
 
===Dunham’s Criteria===
 
===Dunham’s Criteria===
−
Dunham classification system is based on three depositional textural features:
+
[[w:Dunham classification|Dunham's classification system]] is based on three depositional textural features:
−
• The presence or absence of lime mud.
+
* The presence or absence of lime mud.
−
• The abundance of grains.[j]  
+
* The abundance of grains.[j]  
−
• the presence of in situ organic binding   
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* The presence of in situ organic binding   
    
===Dunham (1962) Classification===
 
===Dunham (1962) Classification===
 +
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure12.png|thumbnail|400px|{{Figure number|12}}Dunham classification system for carbonate rock (1962)]]
 
The original Dunham classification system composes of six classes summarized in Figure 12:  
 
The original Dunham classification system composes of six classes summarized in Figure 12:  
−
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure12.png|thumbnail|Fig. 12 Dunham classification system for carbonate rock (1962) [12]]] 
+
* [[Mudstone]]: a mud-supported rock with < 10% grains, and original components are not organically bounded together during deposition (Figure 13).   
−
 
+
* Wackestone: a mud-supported rock with > 10% grains, and original components are not organically bounded together during deposition (Figure 14).   
−
• Mudstone: a mud-supported rock with < 10% grains, and original components are not organically bounded together during deposition (Figure 13).   
+
* Packstone: a grain-supported rock with lime mud presented, and original components are not organically bounded together during deposition (Figure 15).  
−
• Wackestone: a mud-supported rock with > 10% grains, and original components are not organically bounded together during deposition (Figure 14).   
+
* Grainstone: a grain-supported rock with lime mud absent, and original components are not organically bounded together during deposition (Figure 16).  
−
• Packstone: a grain-supported rock with lime mud presented, and original components are not organically bounded together during deposition (Figure 15).  
+
* Boundstone: a rock with the presence of organic components bounded together during deposition.  
−
• Grainstone: a grain-supported rock with lime mud absent, and original components are not organically bounded together during deposition (Figure 16).  
+
* Crystalline: a rock with unrecognizable depositional texture (Figure 17).
−
• Boundstone: a rock with the presence of organic components bounded together during deposition.  
+
<gallery mode=packed heights=250px widths=250px>
−
• Crystalline: a rock with unrecognizable depositional texture (Figure 17).
+
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure13.png|{{figure number|13}}Mudstone
 +
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure14.png|{{figure number|14}}Wackestone
 +
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure15.png|{{figure number|15}}Packstone
 +
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure16.png|{{figure number|16}}
 +
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure17.png|{{figure number|17}}Crystalline rock
 +
</gallery>
    
===Extended Dunham Classification (1971)===
 
===Extended Dunham Classification (1971)===
−
Embry and Klovan expanded the original Dunham classification due to the lack of:
+
Embry and Klovan<ref name=EmbryKlvn /> expanded the original Dunham classification due to the lack of:
−
• Classifying coarse-grained (>2mm) rocks.  
+
* Classifying coarse-grained (>2mm) rocks.  
−
• Subdividing organically-bound rocks (boundstones).  
+
* Subdividing organically-bound rocks (boundstones).  
 
The extended Dunham Classification is shown in Figure 18.  
 
The extended Dunham Classification is shown in Figure 18.  
−
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure18.png|thumbnail|Fig. 18 Extended Dunham classification (1971) [18]]]
+
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure18.png|center|framed|200px|{{Figure number|18}}Extended Dunham classification (1971)]]
    
====Coarse-Grained Rocks Classification====
 
====Coarse-Grained Rocks Classification====
−
• Floatstone: a matrix-supported rock with > 10% of grains >2mm and original components are not organically bounded together during deposition (Figure 19).   
+
* Floatstone: a matrix-supported rock with > 10% of grains >2mm and original components are not organically bounded together during deposition (Figure 19).   
−
• Rudstone: a grain-supported rock with > 10% of grains >2mm and original components are not organically bounded together during deposition (Figure 20).
+
* Rudstone: a grain-supported rock with > 10% of grains >2mm and original components are not organically bounded together during deposition (Figure 20).
 +
<gallery mode=packed heights=250px widths=250px>
 +
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure19.png|{{figure number|19}}Floatstone 
 +
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure20.png|{{figure number|20}}Rudstone
 +
</gallery>
 +
 
 
====Organically-Bound Rocks Subdivision====
 
====Organically-Bound Rocks Subdivision====
−
• Bafflestone: in situ organically-bound rock in which organisms act as baffles (Figure 21).
+
* Bafflestone: in situ organically-bound rock in which organisms act as baffles (Figure 21).
−
• Bindstone: in situ organically-bound rock in which organisms encrust and bind (Figure 22).
+
* Bindstone: in situ organically-bound rock in which organisms encrust and bind (Figure 22).
−
• Framestone: in situ organically-bound rock in which organisms build a rigid framework (Figure 23).[k]
+
* Framestone: in situ organically-bound rock in which organisms build a rigid framework (Figure 23).[k]
 +
<gallery mode=packed heights=250px widths=250px>
 +
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure21.png|{{figure number|21}}Bafflestone
 +
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure22.png|{{figure number|22}}Bindstone
 +
File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure23.png|{{figure number|23}}Framestone
 +
</gallery>
    
===Depositional Energy Setting and Reservoir Quality Indications===
 
===Depositional Energy Setting and Reservoir Quality Indications===
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Floatstones and bindstones are usually formed in medium-energy settings (below average wave base).
 
Floatstones and bindstones are usually formed in medium-energy settings (below average wave base).
 
Rudstones and framestones are usually formed in high-energy settings (above wave base).  
 
Rudstones and framestones are usually formed in high-energy settings (above wave base).  
−
Organically-bound rocks show good reservoir quality if the skeletal growth is interconnected.  
+
Organically-bound rocks show good reservoir quality if the skeletal growth is interconnected.
−
 
  −
==Gallery==
  −
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure3.png|thumbnail|Fig. 3 Intrasparite [3]]] 
  −
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure4.png|thumbnail|Fig. 4 Oosparite [4]]] 
  −
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure5.png|thumbnail|Fig. 5 Biosparite [5]]] 
  −
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure6.png|thumbnail|Fig. 6 Pelsparite [6]]] 
  −
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure7.png|thumbnail|Fig. 7 Intramicrite [7]]] 
  −
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure8.png|thumbnail|Fig. 8 Oomicrite [8]]] 
  −
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure9.png|thumbnail|Fig. 9 Biomicrite [9]]] 
  −
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure10.png|thumbnail|Fig. 10 Pelmicrite [10]]] 
  −
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure13.png|thumbnailFig. 13 Mudstone [13]]] 
  −
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure14.png|thumbnail|Fig. 14 Wackestone [14]]]
  −
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure15.png|thumbnail|Fig. 15 [15]]]
  −
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure16.png|thumbnail|Fig. 16 [16]]] 
  −
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure17.png|thumbnail|Fig. 17 Crystalline rock [17] ]] 
  −
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure19.png|thumbnail|Fig. 19 Floatstone [19]]] 
  −
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure20.png|thumbnail|Fig. 20 Rudstone [20]]]
  −
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure21.png|thumbnail|Fig. 21 Bafflestone [21]]]
  −
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure22.png|thumbnail|Fig. 22 Bindstone [22]]]
  −
[[File:GeoWikiWriteOff2021-Abdulwahab-Figure23.png|thumbnail|Fig. 23 Framestone [23]]]
      
==Notes==  
 
==Notes==  
−
1. ^[a] Early carbonate classification is grain-size based system: Calcilutite (grains < 63 μm), calcarenite (63 μm < grains < 2mm), calcirudite (grains > 2mm).   
+
# [a] Early carbonate classification is grain-size based system: Calcilutite (grains < 63 μm), calcarenite (63 μm < grains < 2mm), calcirudite (grains > 2mm).   
−
 
+
# [b] This family has restricted limits because cement by itself cannot form a rock and the supported framework component (allochems) has limited packing.
−
2. ^[b] This family has restricted limits because cement by itself cannot form a rock and the supported framework component (allochems) has limited packing.
+
# [c] If the microcrystalline limestone had been disturbed either by bioturbation or soft-sediment deformation, the term “disturbed microcrystalline limestone” or “dismicrite” could be assigned.   
−
 
+
# [d] Examples of biolithites are: algal biolithite and coral biolithite.  
−
3. ^[c] If the microcrystalline limestone had been disturbed either by bioturbation or soft-sediment deformation, the term “disturbed microcrystalline limestone” or “dismicrite” could be assigned.   
+
# [e] Naming of a subdivision is a composite of two parts. The first part refers to the name of the allochem. The second part refers to the family type. For Example, intrasparite: intra- refers to intraclasts, and –sparite refers to family I.       
−
 
+
# [f] Oosparites are more common than Oomicrites because the need of strong current to form these rocks.  
−
4. ^[d] Examples of biolithites are: algal biolithite and coral biolithite.  
+
# [g] Intrasparites are more common than intramicrites because the need of strong current to transfer course rock fragments.  
−
 
+
# [h] Both biosparites and biomicrites are common. However, biosparites are usually more rounded and abraded because of the strong current.  
−
5. ^[e] Naming of a subdivision is a composite of two parts. The first part refers to the name of the allochem. The second part refers to the family type. For Example, intrasparite: intra- refers to intraclasts, and –sparite refers to family I.       
+
# [i] The subdivisions could be applied considering other types of allochems: intraclasts, oolites, and pellets.  
−
 
+
# [j] The abundance of grains defines the nature of the framework. In other words, whether it is mud-supported or grain-supported.  
−
6. ^[f] Oosparites are more common than Oomicrites because the need of strong current to form these rocks.  
+
# [k] The term “boundstone” is retained if the organic bounding type is not recognized.   
−
 
  −
7. ^[g] Intrasparites are more common than intramicrites because the need of strong current to transfer course rock fragments.  
  −
 
  −
8. ^[h] Both biosparites and biomicrites are common. However, biosparites are usually more rounded and abraded because of the strong current.  
  −
 
  −
9. ^[i] The subdivisions could be applied considering other types of allochems: intraclasts, oolites, and pellets.  
  −
 
  −
10. ^[j] The abundance of grains defines the nature of the framework. In other words, whether it is mud-supported or grain-supported.  
  −
 
  −
11. ^[k] The term “boundstone” is retained if the organic bounding type is not recognized.   
  −
 
  −
==References==
  −
19. ^ [1] [2] [11] Folk, R. L., 1959, Practical petrographic classification of limestones: AAPG Bulletin, v. 43, p. 1–38.
  −
 
  −
20. ^ [3] [4] [5] [9] Folk Classification. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_classification#cite_ref-2
  −
 
  −
21. ^ [6] Gregg, Jay. (December 18). Limestone Petrology. Missouri S&T. https://web.mst.edu/~greggjay/carbonate_page/lsgallery/pages/c-ACS190_10.htm
  −
 
  −
22. ^ [7] (2021, March 29). Microscopic Gallery. SEPM Strata. http://sepmstrata.org/microscopic_gallery_details.aspx?gid=165&pg=1&gcid=9
  −
 
  −
23. ^ [8] (2021, March 29). Microscopic Gallery. SEPM Strata. http://www.sepmstrata.org/microscopic_gallery_details.aspx?gid=207&pg=3&gcid=11
  −
 
  −
24. ^ [10] Sahraeyan, Mohammad. (2013, June). Sedimentary Basin Analysis of Sachun Formation in Southwestern Iran: Implication for Sedimentary Environments and Tectonic Setting. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Photomicrographs-showing-micrite-and-pelmicrite-in-the-argillaceous-limestone-facies-of_fig8_262337097
  −
 
  −
25. ^ [12] [18] K. Bjørlykke (ed). Petroleum Geoscience: From Sedimentary Environments to Rock Physics, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-34132-8_5, Ⓒ Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015.
  −
 
  −
26. ^ [13] Mudstone. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudstone
  −
 
  −
27. ^ [14] Carbonate Rock Classification. Carbonateworld. https://carbonateworld.com/carbonate-atlas/carbonate-rock-classification/images/wackstone/
  −
 
  −
28. ^ [15] [16] F. Jerry Lucia. Estimating Permeability in Carbonates Using the Rock-Fabric Method. Bureau of Economic Geology. https://www.beg.utexas.edu/lmod/_IOL-CM07/cm07-step02a.htm
  −
 
  −
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{{reflist}}
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* Sahraeyan, Mohammad. (2013, June). Sedimentary Basin Analysis of Sachun Formation in Southwestern Iran: Implication for Sedimentary Environments and Tectonic Setting. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Photomicrographs-showing-micrite-and-pelmicrite-in-the-argillaceous-limestone-facies-of_fig8_262337097
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* K. Bjørlykke (ed). Petroleum Geoscience: From Sedimentary Environments to Rock Physics, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-34132-8_5, Ⓒ Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015.
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* Ardakani, Omid H. (2013, June). Diagenetic evolution and associated mineralization of Middle Devonian carbonates, southwestern Ontario, Canada. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Thin-section-photomicrographs-of-Middle-Devonian-rocks-A-Syntaxial-and-equant-calcite_fig3_235413575
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* Al-Awwad, Saad F. & pomar, Luis. (2015, May 21). Origin of the rudstone–floatstone beds in the Upper Jurassic Arab-D reservoir, Khurais Complex, Saudi Arabia. ScienceDirect. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264817215001634
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* Khanaqa, Polla. (2018, December). Stratigraphy and Facies Analysis of the Govanda Formation from Western Zagros, Kurdistan Region, Northeastern Iraq. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/a-Photo-of-the-Coral-Bafflestone-of-Barda-Balaka-Outcrop-Between-the-stems-Fine_fig12_330094098
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* Bindstone. Bureau of Economic Geology. https://www.beg.utexas.edu/lmod/_IOL-CM02/st21-ancbindstone.htm
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* Camuera, Jon. (2014, July). Origin and palaeo-environmental significance of the Berrazales carbonate spring deposit, North of Gran Canaria Island, Spain. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/A-Framestone-facies-composed-of-parallel-plant-moulds-coated-with-calcite-B-Plant_fig4_283498781
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* Lokier, Stephen W.; Al Junaibi, Mariam (2016). "The petrographic description of carbonate facies: are we all speaking the same language?". Sedimentology. 63 (7): 1843–1885. doi:10.1111/sed.12293
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