Mudstones

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Fine-grained sedimentary rocks (e.g., shale, mudrock, mudstone, claystone, chert, or chalk) are the most common rocks in the stratigraphic column. They preserve the best archives of Earth’s history for interpreting paleoclimate and paleo-oceanography; influence the flow of groundwater and hydrocarbons; serve as hydrocarbon source, reservoir, and seal; and host strata-bound resources. Advancing technology has provided access to the vast energy resources contained in these rocks—indeed, the production of “shale oil” and “shale gas” in the United States changed the energy outlook almost completely over the seven-year span of 2007–2014.

Key Attributes of Fine-Grained Sedimentary Rocks

Sequence-stratigraphic analyses rely on a firm understanding of the nature and character of the rocks under consideration to properly recognize the expression of stratigraphic surfaces and stratal packages in particular depositional systems. In addressing the nature of FGRs, there has been a significant variation in the usage of some of the terms used to describe these rocks. For a detailed discussion and comparison of different terms and classifications of FGRs, see Mudstone nomenclature, as well as Ingram[1]; Tourtelot[2]; Folk[3][4]; Picard[5]; Blatt et al.[6]; Lundegard and Samuels[7]; Potter et al.[8][9]; Spears[10]; Stow[11]; Macquaker and Adams[12]; Lazar et al.[13]/>[14][15]. Here, we recommend the use of “mudstone” as a class name for all FGRs based on their key attribute of grain size, in direct analogy with other sedimentary rock names such as “sandstone” and “limestone.” The following are the key attributes of mudstone to keep in mind throughout this book and in your interpretation of mudstone strata.

 
Figure 1 Major biological evolutionary events through time and examples of pore types in mudstone. (A) and (F): pores in the mineral matrix; (B–E) and (G): pores in the organic matter. These evolutionary changes influence oil and gas yields and hydrocarbon generation kinetics, porosity development, and the occurrence, composition, and diagenetic behavior of the “hard” components as they influence deformation because of burial, tectonic, and human-induced stress. They also affect essential relations used in formation evaluation models (e.g., total organic carbon [TOC] versus uranium; clay minerals versus thorium or potassium; pyrite and TOC versus bulk density; after Bohacs et al. .[16]). Oc. Chem. = ocean chemistry. Green algae photo courtesy of Dr. Yow-Yuh Chen.

Mudstone, similar to sandstone or grainstone, is deposited layer by layer, in sequential order. Its present-day attributes are the result of the sediment history: provenance, weathering and erosion, transport, deposition, and diagenesis.

Mudstone is heterogeneous at sub-millimeter-to-decimeter scale vertically and at centimeter-to-kilometer scale laterally and contains a wide variety of sedimentary structures (e.g., Cluff[17]; Schieber[18],[19] Bohacs[20][21], O’Brien and Slatt[22]; Schieber[23][24][25]; Macquaker et al.[26][27]; Guthrie and Bohacs[28]; Lazar et al.[13][14][15]; Bohacs et al.[29]).

Practically all pelagic material is transported as near-bottom suspension or in bed load as aggregates, floccules, or pellets comprising individual clay- and silt-sized particles with significant amounts of biogenic binding material (e.g., Schieber et al.[30]; Macquaker et al.[31]).

Although transported and deposited as individual or composite particles, rapid consolidation and development of cohesiveness means that subsequent erosion tends to produce significantly larger clasts (as much as 10 cm or greater in diameter)[32][33][34][35].

Most fine-grained biogenic carbonate is advected along the bottom and acts as just another detrital component—very little accumulates in the place it was formed[36][37].

Mudstone composition varies as a function of varying contributions of (1) weathered fine-grained sediment delivered to the basin and (2) soft and hard organic material produced within the basin. This mix of fine-grained material undergoes biochemical transformations during and after mud deposition.

Pervasive silica or carbonate cements commonly form very early at low temperatures as a result of microbial consumption of organic matter and, thus, essentially record attributes of the depositional environment (e.g., Berner[38][39]; Macquaker and Taylor[40]). These cements are typically present just below stratigraphic surfaces (especially flooding surfaces or sequence boundaries). Hence, they can preserve the depositional profile and give it a distinctive well-log signature (e.g., Bohacs[20][21]; Macquaker and Jones[41]; Bohacs and Lazar[42][43]).

Mudstone is reactive because of the large surface area of its components and its biogenic content. These components tend to be unstable at both Earth’s surface and burial conditions, which can lead to extensive diagenetic effects on rock character.

Mudstone is relatively impermeable, so early diagenetic pathways are mostly set by starting (depositional) composition (unlike more highly permeable sandstone or coarse carbonate that could have been exposed to multiple pore volumes of reactants transported through them). Mudstone character changed significantly throughout the Phanerozoic because of the evolution of planktonic organisms (Figure 1; e.g., Niklas et al.[44]; Stanley and Hardie[45]; Markello et al.[46]; Bohacs et al.[16]; Carpenter and Keane[47]).

References

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  2. Tourtelot, H. A., 1960, Origin and use of the word “shale”: American Journal of Science, v. 258A, p. 335–343.
  3. Folk, R. L., 1965, Petrology of sedimentary rocks, 1st edition: Austin, Texas, Hemphill’s, 159 p.
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  9. Potter, P. E., J. B. Maynard, and P. J. Depetris, 2005, Mud and mudstones: Introduction and overview: New York, Springer, 297 p.
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