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Carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration (view source)
Revision as of 17:38, 7 August 2014
, 17:38, 7 August 2014Created page with "{{publication | image = ST59_lg.jpg | width = 120px | series = Studies in Geology | title = Carbon dioxide sequestration in geological media: State of the science ..."
{{publication
| image = ST59_lg.jpg
| width = 120px
| series = Studies in Geology
| title = Carbon dioxide sequestration in geological media: State of the science
| chapter = Geological input to selection and evaluation of CO<sub>2</sub> geosequestration sites
| frompg = 9-1
| topg = 9-156
| author = John G. Jkaldi, Catherine M. Gibson-Poole, Tobias H. D. Payenberg
| link = http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/study59/CHAPTER01/CHAPTER01.HTM
| pdf = http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/study59/CHAPTER01/IMAGES/CHAPTER01.PDF
| store = http://store.aapg.org/detail.aspx?id=739
| isbn = 0-89181-0668
}}
[[Coal]], [[oil]], and [[natural gas]] currently supply about 85% of the world's [[energy]] needs. Moreover, given the relatively low cost and abundance of [[fossil fuel]]s together with the huge sunken investment in fossil-fuel-based infrastructure, fossil fuels will likely continue to be used for at least the next 25 to 50 years. The burning of fossil fuels is, however, the major source of anthropogenic (man-made) carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>). Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas released to the atmosphere.<ref name=IPCC_2005 />
Geosequestration, also known as carbon capture and storage (CCS), is a means to reduce anthropogenic CO<sub>2</sub> emissions to the atmosphere. Geosequestration involves the long-term storage of captured CO<sub>2</sub> emissions in deep subsurface geological reservoirs. Carbon sequestration can be pursued as part of a portfolio of greenhouse gas abatement options, when this portfolio also includes improving the conservation and efficiency of energy use and utilizing nonfossil energy forms such as renewable ([[solar]], [[wind]], and [[tidal]]) and [[nuclear energy]].<ref name=Kaldi_2005>Kaldi, J. G., 2005, Geosequestration: Australian Institute of Geoscientists Quarterly Newsletter, v. 80, p. 1–6.</ref> Geosequestration may contribute significant reductions to anthropogenic CO<sub>2</sub> emissions. Estimates by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change indicate that a technical potential of at least about 2000 billion metric tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub> storage capacity in geological formations likely exists (Table 1).<ref name=IPCC_2005 />
{| class = "wikitable"
|-
|+ {{table number|1}}Storage capacity for several geological storage options*
|-
! Reservoir type || Lower estimate of storage capacity (Gt CO<sub>2</sub> || Upper estimate of storage capacity (Gt CO<sub>2</sub>
|-
| Oil and gas fields || 675** || 900**
|-
| Unmineable coal seams in ECBM*** recovery || 3-15 || 200
|-
| Deep saline formations || 1000 || Uncertain but possibly 10,000
|}
<span style="font-size:8pt">''*The storage capacity includes storage options that are not economical.<ref name=IPCC_2005>Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2005, IPCC special report on carbon dioxide capture and storage, prepared by Working Group III of the IPCC (B. Metz, O. Davidson, H. C. de Connick, M. Loos, and L. A. Meyer, eds): New York, Cambridge University Press, 442 p.</ref> **These numbers would increase by 25% if undiscovered oil and gas fields were included in this assessment. ***ECBM = enhanced coalbed methane.''</span>
[[file:GeosequestrationProcess.JPG|thumb|400px|{{figure number|1}}A simplified view of the steps involved in the geosequestration process (image courtesy of Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies [CO2CRC]).<ref name=Kaldietal_2009>Kaldi, J. G., C. M. Gibson-Poole, and T. H. D. Payenberg, 2009, Geological input to selection and evaluation of CO<sub>2</sub> geosequestration sites, in M. Grobe, J. C. Pashin, and R. L. Dodge, eds., Carbon dioxide sequestration in geological media—State of the science: AAPG Studies in Geology 59 , p. 5–16.</ref>]]
Geosequestration comprises several steps: first, the CO<sub>2</sub> is captured at the source, which can be a power plant or other industrial facility; the captured CO<sub>2</sub> is then transported, typically via pipeline, from the source to the geological storage site; next, the CO<sub>2</sub> is injected deep underground via wells into the geological reservoir; and finally, the CO<sub>2</sub> is stored in the geological reservoir, where its movement is carefully monitored and the quantity stored is regularly verified ([[:file:GeosequestrationProcess.JPG|Figure 1]]). The capture, transport, and injection processes do require additional energy to be expended (and hence more CO<sub>2</sub> is emitted); however, the net CO<sub>2</sub> emission reduction is still a significantly large volume to make deep reductions in anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. For example, a power plant with CCS could reduce net CO<sub>2</sub> emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80–90% compared to a plant without CCS ([[:file:CO2EmissionsComparison.JPG|Figure 2]]).<ref name=IPCC_2005 />
[[file:CO2EmissionsComparison.JPG|thumb|400px|}}figure number|2}}|Comparison of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from power plants with and without CO<sub>2</sub> capture and storage. A power plant with CCS (lower bar) has increased CO<sub>2</sub> production resulting from loss in overall efficiency because of the additional energy required for capture, transport, and storage. However, available technology can capture 85-95% of the CO<sub>2</sub> processed in a capture plant, resulting in a net CO<sub>2</sub> emission reduction (CO<sub>2</sub> avoided) of 80-90% compared to the reference power plant (upper bar) without capture. CCS = carbon capture and storage.<ref name=Kaldietal_2009 />]]
==Carbon dioxide capture==
Carbon dioxide capture can be conducted at a point (stationary) source of CO<sub>2</sub> such as a power plant. Carbon dioxide capture involves capturing the produced CO<sub>2</sub> instead of allowing it to be released to the atmosphere. This captured CO<sub>2</sub> is then compressed to make it more dense and much easier, and less costly, to transport to the geological storage site.
Anthropogenic CO<sub>2</sub> that can be captured is produced by three main types of activity: industrial processes, electricity generation, and hydrogen (H<sub>2</sub>) production. Industrial processes that lend themselves to CO<sub>2</sub> capture include natural gas processing, ammonia production, and cement manufacture. Note, however, that the total quantity of CO<sub>2</sub> produced by these processes is limited. A far larger source, accounting for one-third of total CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, is fossil-fueled power production. The types of power plants that are best suited to CO<sub>2</sub> capture are pulverized coal (PC), natural gas combined cycle (NGCC), and integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plants.<ref name=Davisonetal_2006>Davison, J., R. M. Domenichin, and L. Mancuso, 2006, CO2 capture in low rank coal power plants, in N. A. Rokke, O. Bolland, and J. Gale, eds., Greenhouse gas control technologies: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies: Trondheim, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), SINTEF Technology (SINTEF), and International Energy Agency (IEA) Greenhouse Gas RampD Program, 6 p.</ref> Finally, a potentially large future source of CO<sub>2</sub> for capture will be H<sub>2</sub> production, whereby the produced H<sub>2</sub> is used to fuel a hydrogen economy, i.e., it is used in turbines to produce electricity and in fuel cells to power cars. Technologies for capturing CO<sub>2</sub> from electricity generation fall into two general categories: postcombustion and precombustion.<ref name=Kentishetal_2006>Kentish, S., B. Hooper, G. Stevens, J. Perera, and G. Qiao, 2006, An overview of technologies for carbon capture: Proceedings of the Australian Institute of Energy National Conference, November 27–29, 2006, Melbourne, 8 p.</ref>
==Carbon dioxide transport==
Carbon dioxide transport involves moving, or transporting, the captured CO<sub>2</sub> from the CO<sub>2</sub> point source to the geological storage site. The CO<sub>2</sub> is typically transported in a compressed form via pipeline, although the CO<sub>2</sub> could also be transported by truck, rail, or in the case of a geological storage site located offshore, ocean tanker.
==Carbon dioxide injection==
Carbon dioxide injection involves taking the CO<sub>2</sub> from the surface and injecting it deep underground into a [[reservoir rock]]. The CO<sub>2</sub> is injected into the reservoir via a single well or array of wells. Both enhanced oil recovery (EOR) using CO<sub>2</sub> floods and acid gas injection (AGI) are mature technologies that involve significant quantities of CO<sub>2</sub> being injected underground and are therefore very good analogs for CO<sub>2</sub> injection as part of geosequestration activities. The first project using CO<sub>2</sub> for EOR began in 1972, and by 1999, 84 operational projects worldwide existed (72 in the United States) injecting an estimated total of more than 15 million tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub> per year.<ref name=EPRI_1999>Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), 1999, Enhanced oil recovery scoping study, final report, October 1999, TR-113836: http://www.energy.ca.gov/process/pubs/electrotech_opps_tr113836.pdf (accessed August 10, 2007).</ref>
[[File:CO2StorageOptions.JPG|thumb|400px|{{figure number|3}}|Options for the geological storage of CO2 (image courtesy of Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies [CO2CRC]).<ref name=Kaldietal_2009 />]]
==Carbon dioxide storage==
Carbon dioxide storage involves keeping the CO<sub>2</sub> secured deep underground in a geological reservoir. Carbon dioxide can be stored geologically in a variety of different options ([[:file:CO2StorageOptions.JPG|Figure 3)]]. These include depleted oil and gas fields, EOR, deep saline formations, deep unmineable coal seams, enhanced coalbed methane recovery (ECBMR), and other opportunities such as salt caverns.<ref name=Cook_1998>Cook, P. J., 1998, Carbon dioxide—Putting it back where it came from: Australian Gas Journal, p. 40–41.</ref><ref name=Bachuandgunter_1999>Bachu, S., and W. D. Gunter, 1999, Storage capacity of CO2 in geological media in sedimentary basins with application to the Alberta Basin, in P. Reimer, B. Eliasson, and A. Wokaun, eds., Greenhouse gas control technologies: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies, August 30–September 2, 1998, Interlaken, Switzerland, Elsevier, p. 195–200.</ref><ref name=Cooketal_2000>Cook, P. J., A. J. Rigg, and J. Bradshaw, 2000, Putting it back from where it came from: Is geological disposal of carbon dioxide an option for Australia: The Australian Petroleum Production and Exploration Association (APPEA) Journal, v. 40, no. 1, p. 654–666.</ref><ref name=IPCC_2005 />
==See also==
* [[Carbon dioxide (CO2) storage]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
{{search}}
* [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/study59/CHAPTER01/CHAPTER01.HTM Original content in Datapages]
* [http://store.aapg.org/detail.aspx?id=739 Find the book in the AAPG Store]
| image = ST59_lg.jpg
| width = 120px
| series = Studies in Geology
| title = Carbon dioxide sequestration in geological media: State of the science
| chapter = Geological input to selection and evaluation of CO<sub>2</sub> geosequestration sites
| frompg = 9-1
| topg = 9-156
| author = John G. Jkaldi, Catherine M. Gibson-Poole, Tobias H. D. Payenberg
| link = http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/study59/CHAPTER01/CHAPTER01.HTM
| pdf = http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/study59/CHAPTER01/IMAGES/CHAPTER01.PDF
| store = http://store.aapg.org/detail.aspx?id=739
| isbn = 0-89181-0668
}}
[[Coal]], [[oil]], and [[natural gas]] currently supply about 85% of the world's [[energy]] needs. Moreover, given the relatively low cost and abundance of [[fossil fuel]]s together with the huge sunken investment in fossil-fuel-based infrastructure, fossil fuels will likely continue to be used for at least the next 25 to 50 years. The burning of fossil fuels is, however, the major source of anthropogenic (man-made) carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>). Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas released to the atmosphere.<ref name=IPCC_2005 />
Geosequestration, also known as carbon capture and storage (CCS), is a means to reduce anthropogenic CO<sub>2</sub> emissions to the atmosphere. Geosequestration involves the long-term storage of captured CO<sub>2</sub> emissions in deep subsurface geological reservoirs. Carbon sequestration can be pursued as part of a portfolio of greenhouse gas abatement options, when this portfolio also includes improving the conservation and efficiency of energy use and utilizing nonfossil energy forms such as renewable ([[solar]], [[wind]], and [[tidal]]) and [[nuclear energy]].<ref name=Kaldi_2005>Kaldi, J. G., 2005, Geosequestration: Australian Institute of Geoscientists Quarterly Newsletter, v. 80, p. 1–6.</ref> Geosequestration may contribute significant reductions to anthropogenic CO<sub>2</sub> emissions. Estimates by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change indicate that a technical potential of at least about 2000 billion metric tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub> storage capacity in geological formations likely exists (Table 1).<ref name=IPCC_2005 />
{| class = "wikitable"
|-
|+ {{table number|1}}Storage capacity for several geological storage options*
|-
! Reservoir type || Lower estimate of storage capacity (Gt CO<sub>2</sub> || Upper estimate of storage capacity (Gt CO<sub>2</sub>
|-
| Oil and gas fields || 675** || 900**
|-
| Unmineable coal seams in ECBM*** recovery || 3-15 || 200
|-
| Deep saline formations || 1000 || Uncertain but possibly 10,000
|}
<span style="font-size:8pt">''*The storage capacity includes storage options that are not economical.<ref name=IPCC_2005>Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2005, IPCC special report on carbon dioxide capture and storage, prepared by Working Group III of the IPCC (B. Metz, O. Davidson, H. C. de Connick, M. Loos, and L. A. Meyer, eds): New York, Cambridge University Press, 442 p.</ref> **These numbers would increase by 25% if undiscovered oil and gas fields were included in this assessment. ***ECBM = enhanced coalbed methane.''</span>
[[file:GeosequestrationProcess.JPG|thumb|400px|{{figure number|1}}A simplified view of the steps involved in the geosequestration process (image courtesy of Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies [CO2CRC]).<ref name=Kaldietal_2009>Kaldi, J. G., C. M. Gibson-Poole, and T. H. D. Payenberg, 2009, Geological input to selection and evaluation of CO<sub>2</sub> geosequestration sites, in M. Grobe, J. C. Pashin, and R. L. Dodge, eds., Carbon dioxide sequestration in geological media—State of the science: AAPG Studies in Geology 59 , p. 5–16.</ref>]]
Geosequestration comprises several steps: first, the CO<sub>2</sub> is captured at the source, which can be a power plant or other industrial facility; the captured CO<sub>2</sub> is then transported, typically via pipeline, from the source to the geological storage site; next, the CO<sub>2</sub> is injected deep underground via wells into the geological reservoir; and finally, the CO<sub>2</sub> is stored in the geological reservoir, where its movement is carefully monitored and the quantity stored is regularly verified ([[:file:GeosequestrationProcess.JPG|Figure 1]]). The capture, transport, and injection processes do require additional energy to be expended (and hence more CO<sub>2</sub> is emitted); however, the net CO<sub>2</sub> emission reduction is still a significantly large volume to make deep reductions in anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. For example, a power plant with CCS could reduce net CO<sub>2</sub> emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80–90% compared to a plant without CCS ([[:file:CO2EmissionsComparison.JPG|Figure 2]]).<ref name=IPCC_2005 />
[[file:CO2EmissionsComparison.JPG|thumb|400px|}}figure number|2}}|Comparison of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from power plants with and without CO<sub>2</sub> capture and storage. A power plant with CCS (lower bar) has increased CO<sub>2</sub> production resulting from loss in overall efficiency because of the additional energy required for capture, transport, and storage. However, available technology can capture 85-95% of the CO<sub>2</sub> processed in a capture plant, resulting in a net CO<sub>2</sub> emission reduction (CO<sub>2</sub> avoided) of 80-90% compared to the reference power plant (upper bar) without capture. CCS = carbon capture and storage.<ref name=Kaldietal_2009 />]]
==Carbon dioxide capture==
Carbon dioxide capture can be conducted at a point (stationary) source of CO<sub>2</sub> such as a power plant. Carbon dioxide capture involves capturing the produced CO<sub>2</sub> instead of allowing it to be released to the atmosphere. This captured CO<sub>2</sub> is then compressed to make it more dense and much easier, and less costly, to transport to the geological storage site.
Anthropogenic CO<sub>2</sub> that can be captured is produced by three main types of activity: industrial processes, electricity generation, and hydrogen (H<sub>2</sub>) production. Industrial processes that lend themselves to CO<sub>2</sub> capture include natural gas processing, ammonia production, and cement manufacture. Note, however, that the total quantity of CO<sub>2</sub> produced by these processes is limited. A far larger source, accounting for one-third of total CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, is fossil-fueled power production. The types of power plants that are best suited to CO<sub>2</sub> capture are pulverized coal (PC), natural gas combined cycle (NGCC), and integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plants.<ref name=Davisonetal_2006>Davison, J., R. M. Domenichin, and L. Mancuso, 2006, CO2 capture in low rank coal power plants, in N. A. Rokke, O. Bolland, and J. Gale, eds., Greenhouse gas control technologies: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies: Trondheim, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), SINTEF Technology (SINTEF), and International Energy Agency (IEA) Greenhouse Gas RampD Program, 6 p.</ref> Finally, a potentially large future source of CO<sub>2</sub> for capture will be H<sub>2</sub> production, whereby the produced H<sub>2</sub> is used to fuel a hydrogen economy, i.e., it is used in turbines to produce electricity and in fuel cells to power cars. Technologies for capturing CO<sub>2</sub> from electricity generation fall into two general categories: postcombustion and precombustion.<ref name=Kentishetal_2006>Kentish, S., B. Hooper, G. Stevens, J. Perera, and G. Qiao, 2006, An overview of technologies for carbon capture: Proceedings of the Australian Institute of Energy National Conference, November 27–29, 2006, Melbourne, 8 p.</ref>
==Carbon dioxide transport==
Carbon dioxide transport involves moving, or transporting, the captured CO<sub>2</sub> from the CO<sub>2</sub> point source to the geological storage site. The CO<sub>2</sub> is typically transported in a compressed form via pipeline, although the CO<sub>2</sub> could also be transported by truck, rail, or in the case of a geological storage site located offshore, ocean tanker.
==Carbon dioxide injection==
Carbon dioxide injection involves taking the CO<sub>2</sub> from the surface and injecting it deep underground into a [[reservoir rock]]. The CO<sub>2</sub> is injected into the reservoir via a single well or array of wells. Both enhanced oil recovery (EOR) using CO<sub>2</sub> floods and acid gas injection (AGI) are mature technologies that involve significant quantities of CO<sub>2</sub> being injected underground and are therefore very good analogs for CO<sub>2</sub> injection as part of geosequestration activities. The first project using CO<sub>2</sub> for EOR began in 1972, and by 1999, 84 operational projects worldwide existed (72 in the United States) injecting an estimated total of more than 15 million tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub> per year.<ref name=EPRI_1999>Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), 1999, Enhanced oil recovery scoping study, final report, October 1999, TR-113836: http://www.energy.ca.gov/process/pubs/electrotech_opps_tr113836.pdf (accessed August 10, 2007).</ref>
[[File:CO2StorageOptions.JPG|thumb|400px|{{figure number|3}}|Options for the geological storage of CO2 (image courtesy of Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies [CO2CRC]).<ref name=Kaldietal_2009 />]]
==Carbon dioxide storage==
Carbon dioxide storage involves keeping the CO<sub>2</sub> secured deep underground in a geological reservoir. Carbon dioxide can be stored geologically in a variety of different options ([[:file:CO2StorageOptions.JPG|Figure 3)]]. These include depleted oil and gas fields, EOR, deep saline formations, deep unmineable coal seams, enhanced coalbed methane recovery (ECBMR), and other opportunities such as salt caverns.<ref name=Cook_1998>Cook, P. J., 1998, Carbon dioxide—Putting it back where it came from: Australian Gas Journal, p. 40–41.</ref><ref name=Bachuandgunter_1999>Bachu, S., and W. D. Gunter, 1999, Storage capacity of CO2 in geological media in sedimentary basins with application to the Alberta Basin, in P. Reimer, B. Eliasson, and A. Wokaun, eds., Greenhouse gas control technologies: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies, August 30–September 2, 1998, Interlaken, Switzerland, Elsevier, p. 195–200.</ref><ref name=Cooketal_2000>Cook, P. J., A. J. Rigg, and J. Bradshaw, 2000, Putting it back from where it came from: Is geological disposal of carbon dioxide an option for Australia: The Australian Petroleum Production and Exploration Association (APPEA) Journal, v. 40, no. 1, p. 654–666.</ref><ref name=IPCC_2005 />
==See also==
* [[Carbon dioxide (CO2) storage]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
{{search}}
* [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/study59/CHAPTER01/CHAPTER01.HTM Original content in Datapages]
* [http://store.aapg.org/detail.aspx?id=739 Find the book in the AAPG Store]