Changes

[[Paleogeography|Paleogeographic]] maps (Figures 5-14) illustrate the possible past distribution of the most characteristic stratigraphic units. These maps are on a continental drift base modified from the [[http://www.odsn.de/ Ocean Drilling Stratigraphic Network (ODSN)] created in 2005 by the University of Bremen, with Florida occupying a fixed position. In all maps, Cuba is shown in its present position relative to Florida, although different parts of the island came from various places.  

[[Paleogeography|Paleogeographic]] maps (Figures 5-14) illustrate the possible past distribution of the most characteristic stratigraphic units. These maps are on a continental drift base modified from the [[http://www.odsn.de/ Ocean Drilling Stratigraphic Network (ODSN)] created in 2005 by the University of Bremen, with Florida occupying a fixed position. In all maps, Cuba is shown in its present position relative to Florida, although different parts of the island came from various places.  

In these maps, [[autochthon]]ous nappes, allochthonous [[nappe]]s, and [[subduction]] will be used to describe, respectively, the thrusting toward the continent of the sediments, the basic igneous-volcanic rocks, and the subduction. Supported by observations in Cuba and elsewhere, these maps show subduction as the main cause of the uplift of a [http://geology.com/nsta/convergent-plate-boundaries.shtml convergent continental margin] or ocean floor, whereas the nappes are the result of sedimentary or volcanic cover sliding away, under the force of gravity, from the area uplifted by subduction.

In these maps, [[autochthon]]ous nappes, allochthonous [[nappe]]s, and [[subduction]] will be used to describe, respectively, the thrusting toward the continent of the sediments, the [[Wikipedia:Basic_rock|basic]] igneous-volcanic rocks, and the subduction. Supported by observations in Cuba and elsewhere, these maps show subduction as the main cause of the uplift of a [http://geology.com/nsta/convergent-plate-boundaries.shtml convergent continental margin] or ocean floor, whereas the nappes are the result of sedimentary or volcanic cover sliding away, under the force of gravity, from the area uplifted by subduction.

Burke,<ref name=Burke_1988>Burke, K., 1988, Tectonic evolution of the Caribbean: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 16, p. 201-230.</ref> Pindell and Barrett,<ref name=Pindellandbarrett_1990>Pindell, J. L., and S. F. Barrett, 1990, Geologicla evolution of the Caribbean region, a plate-tectonic perspective, ''in'' The geology of North America, v. H: The Caribbean region: Geological Society of America, p. 405-432.</ref> Iturralde-Vinent,<ref name=Iturraldevinent_1996>Iturralde-Vinent, M. A., ed., 1996, Ofiolitas y arcos volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban ophiolites and volcanic arcs), ''in'' International Union of Geological Sciences-United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization International Geological Correlation Programe, Contribution 1, Project 364 (Geological correlation of ophiolites and volcanic arc terrane in the Circum-Caribbean realm), 254 p.</ref> Cobiella-Reguera,<ref name=Cobiellareguera_2005>Cobiella-Reguera, J. L., 2005, Emplacement of Cuban ophiolites: Geologica Acta, v. 3, no. 3, p. 273-294.</ref> Garcia-Casco et al.,<ref name=Garciacascoetal_2006>Garcia-Casco, A., R. L. Torres-Roldan, M. A. Iturralde-Vinent, G. Millan, K. Nunez Cambra, C. Lazaro, and A. Rodriguez Vega, 2006, High pressure metamorphism of ophiolites in Cuba: Geologica Acta, v. 4, no. 1-2, p. 63-88.</ref> Giunta et al.,<ref name=Giuntaetal_2006>Giunta, G., L. Beccaluav, and F. Siena, 2006, Caribbean plate margin evolution: constraints and current problems: Geologica Acta, v. 4, no. 102, p. 265-277.</ref> and Pindell et al.<ref name=Pindelletal_2006>Pindell, J. L., L. Kennan, K. P. Stanek, W. V. Maresh, and G. Draper, 2006, Foundations of Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean evolution: Eight controversies resolved: Geologica Acta, v. 4, no. 1-2, p. 303-341.</ref> have interpreted the Cretaceous Cuban subduction as northeast [[dip]]ping and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomagnetic_reversals reversing polarity] to the southwest during the Late Cretaceous. Cuba's geology suggests that the subduction was continuously north dipping, and this concept is discussed in more detail below.

Burke,<ref name=Burke_1988>Burke, K., 1988, Tectonic evolution of the Caribbean: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 16, p. 201-230.</ref> Pindell and Barrett,<ref name=Pindellandbarrett_1990>Pindell, J. L., and S. F. Barrett, 1990, Geologicla evolution of the Caribbean region, a plate-tectonic perspective, ''in'' The geology of North America, v. H: The Caribbean region: Geological Society of America, p. 405-432.</ref> Iturralde-Vinent,<ref name=Iturraldevinent_1996>Iturralde-Vinent, M. A., ed., 1996, Ofiolitas y arcos volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban ophiolites and volcanic arcs), ''in'' International Union of Geological Sciences-United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization International Geological Correlation Programe, Contribution 1, Project 364 (Geological correlation of ophiolites and volcanic arc terrane in the Circum-Caribbean realm), 254 p.</ref> Cobiella-Reguera,<ref name=Cobiellareguera_2005>Cobiella-Reguera, J. L., 2005, Emplacement of Cuban ophiolites: Geologica Acta, v. 3, no. 3, p. 273-294.</ref> Garcia-Casco et al.,<ref name=Garciacascoetal_2006>Garcia-Casco, A., R. L. Torres-Roldan, M. A. Iturralde-Vinent, G. Millan, K. Nunez Cambra, C. Lazaro, and A. Rodriguez Vega, 2006, High pressure metamorphism of ophiolites in Cuba: Geologica Acta, v. 4, no. 1-2, p. 63-88.</ref> Giunta et al.,<ref name=Giuntaetal_2006>Giunta, G., L. Beccaluav, and F. Siena, 2006, Caribbean plate margin evolution: constraints and current problems: Geologica Acta, v. 4, no. 102, p. 265-277.</ref> and Pindell et al.<ref name=Pindelletal_2006>Pindell, J. L., L. Kennan, K. P. Stanek, W. V. Maresh, and G. Draper, 2006, Foundations of Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean evolution: Eight controversies resolved: Geologica Acta, v. 4, no. 1-2, p. 303-341.</ref> have interpreted the Cretaceous Cuban subduction as northeast [[dip]]ping and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomagnetic_reversals reversing polarity] to the southwest during the Late Cretaceous. Cuba's geology suggests that the subduction was continuously north dipping, and this concept is discussed in more detail below.

In central Cuba, the Upper Jurassic and Neocomian beds were only partially eroded. In western Cuba, shallow-bank carbonates, similar to those of the [[Vinas Group|Vinas* Group]], accumulated atop the La Rana granodiorite [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horst_%28geology%29 horst] and formed the Guajaibon–Sierra Azul belt. South of the La Rana basement horst, deep-water limestones of the Mayari, Collantes, and Cobrito Formations were deposited and preserved.

In central Cuba, the Upper Jurassic and Neocomian beds were only partially eroded. In western Cuba, shallow-bank carbonates, similar to those of the [[Vinas Group|Vinas* Group]], accumulated atop the La Rana granodiorite [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horst_%28geology%29 horst] and formed the Guajaibon–Sierra Azul belt. South of the La Rana basement horst, deep-water limestones of the Mayari, Collantes, and Cobrito Formations were deposited and preserved.

Farther south, rifting continued, accompanied by outpouring of tholeites and other [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_rock basic] to [https://wwwf.imperial.ac.uk/earthscienceandengineering/rocklibrary/viewglossrecord.php?gID=00000000012 ultrabasic] material forming a layered [[Oceanic crust|oceanic basement]] consisting of [http://geology.about.com/od/rocks/ig/igrockindex/rocpicperidotite.htm peridotite], [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/223075/gabbro gabbro], sheeted [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/163476/dike dikes], [[Wikipedia:Pillow lava|pillow basalts]] (old volcanics of the Domingo* sequence), and associated sediments. Although some genetic relationship exists between the [[Domingo*]] sequence and the El Sabalo–Nueva Maria lithologies, these belong to two entirely different provinces. [[El Sabalo Formation|El Sabalo]] and the [[Nueva Maria Formation]]s, like the granodiorites, belong to the autochthonous nappes and were at the continental margin, whereas the Domingo* sequence forms the base of the allochthonous nappe and is entirely oceanic.

Farther south, rifting continued, accompanied by outpouring of tholeites and other [[Wikipedia:Basic_rock|basic]] to [https://wwwf.imperial.ac.uk/earthscienceandengineering/rocklibrary/viewglossrecord.php?gID=00000000012 ultrabasic] material forming a layered [[Oceanic crust|oceanic basement]] consisting of [http://geology.about.com/od/rocks/ig/igrockindex/rocpicperidotite.htm peridotite], [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/223075/gabbro gabbro], sheeted [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/163476/dike dikes], [[Wikipedia:Pillow lava|pillow basalts]] (old volcanics of the Domingo* sequence), and associated sediments. Although some genetic relationship exists between the [[Domingo*]] sequence and the El Sabalo–Nueva Maria lithologies, these belong to two entirely different provinces. [[El Sabalo Formation|El Sabalo]] and the [[Nueva Maria Formation]]s, like the granodiorites, belong to the autochthonous nappes and were at the continental margin, whereas the Domingo* sequence forms the base of the allochthonous nappe and is entirely oceanic.

===Barremian===

===Barremian===

During the [[Barremian]], deposition of [[platform]] carbonates continued in the north, grading from shallow-water algal types, with fewer [[evaporite]]s, to [[breccia]]s. South, west, and possibly east of the Bahamas Platform, deep-water sedimentation of [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pelagic pelagic] (nannoplankton) carbonates continued. However, because of the late Neocomian tectonic activity, conglomerates, derived from the previously deposited limestones in the Las Villas* belt and from the exposed granitic basement in the [[Cifuentes]]* belt to the south, became common. No Barremian sediments were deposited in some of the southern areas. However, the basaltic to intermediate flows possibly continued to accumulate over the southern part of the basic igneous basement.

During the [[Barremian]], deposition of [[platform]] carbonates continued in the north, grading from shallow-water algal types, with fewer [[evaporite]]s, to [[breccia]]s. South, west, and possibly east of the Bahamas Platform, deep-water sedimentation of [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pelagic pelagic] (nannoplankton) carbonates continued. However, because of the late Neocomian tectonic activity, conglomerates, derived from the previously deposited limestones in the Las Villas* belt and from the exposed granitic basement in the [[Cifuentes]]* belt to the south, became common. No Barremian sediments were deposited in some of the southern areas. However, the basaltic to intermediate flows possibly continued to accumulate over the southern part of the [[Wikipedia:Basic_rock|basic]] igneous basement.

===Aptian===

===Aptian===

[[Turonian]] and [[Coniacian]] rockss are not common across most of the nonvolcanic area (80 Ma; [[:file:St58OverviewFG30.JPG|Figure 10]]). They are present to the north in the Cayo Coco area, to the south in the Seibabo area in central Cuba, and in a few units of the southern and northern Rosario belts in western Cuba. The [[strata]] above and below the missing interval all have deep-water characteristics, and no evidence of subaerial [[erosion]] exists to explain the lack of the Turonian and Coniacian sediments across such a large area. Either there was no deposition, or the section was eroded because of changes in current patterns or [[submarine slide]]s. Local erosion is unlikely because a [[hiatus]] of the same age has been found in many of the holes drilled by the [http://www.deepseadrilling.org/ Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP)] in the southern Gulf of Mexico and the western Atlantic. Toward the north, in the platform to deep-water province, whatever sediments remain show that sedimentation continued under [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pelagic pelagic] conditions and was essentially calcareous, with subordinate [[chert]]s.

[[Turonian]] and [[Coniacian]] rockss are not common across most of the nonvolcanic area (80 Ma; [[:file:St58OverviewFG30.JPG|Figure 10]]). They are present to the north in the Cayo Coco area, to the south in the Seibabo area in central Cuba, and in a few units of the southern and northern Rosario belts in western Cuba. The [[strata]] above and below the missing interval all have deep-water characteristics, and no evidence of subaerial [[erosion]] exists to explain the lack of the Turonian and Coniacian sediments across such a large area. Either there was no deposition, or the section was eroded because of changes in current patterns or [[submarine slide]]s. Local erosion is unlikely because a [[hiatus]] of the same age has been found in many of the holes drilled by the [http://www.deepseadrilling.org/ Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP)] in the southern Gulf of Mexico and the western Atlantic. Toward the north, in the platform to deep-water province, whatever sediments remain show that sedimentation continued under [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pelagic pelagic] conditions and was essentially calcareous, with subordinate [[chert]]s.

Toward the south in the basic igneous-volcanic province, conditions were also dominantly pelagic. Sedimentation was accompanied by a renewal of volcanism, with an outpouring of flows and other [[Wikipedia:Ejecta|ejecta]] of a more [http://geology.about.com/od/rocks/ig/igrockindex/rocpicrhyolite.htm rhyolitic] composition (Pastora* Group). Evidence of subaerial volcanism (such as glass bombs and ash beds) exists. Shallow-water [[reef]]s with [[rudist]]s, [[coral]]s, and large [[foraminifera]] are commonly associated with the volcanics and volcaniclastics. This was the period of major [http://geology.about.com/library/bl/blnutshell_subducfactory.htm arc volcanism] associated with subduction. It was also the time of [http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/ks3/gsl/education/resources/rockcycle/page3598.html intrusion] of the Manicaragua granodiorite into the central Cuba volcanics.

Toward the south in the [[Wikipedia:Basic_rock|basic]] igneous-volcanic province, conditions were also dominantly pelagic. Sedimentation was accompanied by a renewal of volcanism, with an outpouring of flows and other [[Wikipedia:Ejecta|ejecta]] of a more [http://geology.about.com/od/rocks/ig/igrockindex/rocpicrhyolite.htm rhyolitic] composition (Pastora* Group). Evidence of subaerial volcanism (such as glass bombs and ash beds) exists. Shallow-water [[reef]]s with [[rudist]]s, [[coral]]s, and large [[foraminifera]] are commonly associated with the volcanics and volcaniclastics. This was the period of major [http://geology.about.com/library/bl/blnutshell_subducfactory.htm arc volcanism] associated with subduction. It was also the time of [http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/ks3/gsl/education/resources/rockcycle/page3598.html intrusion] of the Manicaragua granodiorite into the central Cuba volcanics.

===Campanian-Maastrichtian===

===Campanian-Maastrichtian===

After the period of the [[Unconformity|disconformity]], [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pelagic pelagic] conditions characterized the platform to deep-water province, which received massive, dominantly carbonate [[turbidite]] flows from the north (Lutgarda* Formation) and from the south (Amaro* and Cacarajicara formations) (67 Ma; [[:file:St58OverviewFG31.JPG|Figure 11]]). Over the basic igneous-volcanic province, local [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/provenance provenance] resulted in an abundance of fragmental rocks; that is, limestones toward the north (Penalver Formation) and volcanics toward the south. In the south, sedimentation was accompanied during the Maastrichtian by an outpouring of late orogenic basaltic flows and flow breccias (the Maastrichtian age of these flows disagrees with the current interpretation of most Cuban geologists, including Iturralde-Vinent, 1996). Toward the north, along the present outer line of clays, deposition of coarse Maastrichtian limestone conglomerate (Mayajigua* Formation) graded into fine-grained pelagic rocks. The basic igneous-volcanic province began its initial northward movement as indicated by serpentine detritus in the turbidites, by basic intrusive-derived clastics (Miguel Formation) associated with the Domingo* thrust, as well as by the presence of large Maastrichtian thrust sheets of ultrabasics in Oriente. Thrusting (and metamorphism) of ultrabasics began in the Escambray, and thrust sheets began to stack into the former basin that is today represented by the Guaniguanico Mountains. Northward-dipping subduction to the south produced uplift of the convergent margins. The northward-moving thrust sheets or nappes formed as the result of the sedimentary or volcanic cover sliding away from the uplifted areas.

After the period of the [[Unconformity|disconformity]], [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pelagic pelagic] conditions characterized the platform to deep-water province, which received massive, dominantly carbonate [[turbidite]] flows from the north (Lutgarda* Formation) and from the south (Amaro* and Cacarajicara formations) (67 Ma; [[:file:St58OverviewFG31.JPG|Figure 11]]). Over the [[Wikipedia:Basic_rock|basic]] igneous-volcanic province, local [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/provenance provenance] resulted in an abundance of fragmental rocks; that is, limestones toward the north (Penalver Formation) and volcanics toward the south. In the south, sedimentation was accompanied during the Maastrichtian by an outpouring of late orogenic basaltic flows and flow breccias (the Maastrichtian age of these flows disagrees with the current interpretation of most Cuban geologists, including Iturralde-Vinent, 1996). Toward the north, along the present outer line of clays, deposition of coarse Maastrichtian limestone conglomerate (Mayajigua* Formation) graded into fine-grained pelagic rocks. The basic igneous-volcanic province began its initial northward movement as indicated by serpentine detritus in the turbidites, by basic intrusive-derived clastics (Miguel Formation) associated with the Domingo* thrust, as well as by the presence of large Maastrichtian thrust sheets of ultrabasics in Oriente. Thrusting (and metamorphism) of ultrabasics began in the Escambray, and thrust sheets began to stack into the former basin that is today represented by the Guaniguanico Mountains. Northward-dipping subduction to the south produced uplift of the convergent margins. The northward-moving thrust sheets or nappes formed as the result of the sedimentary or volcanic cover sliding away from the uplifted areas.

===Paleocene (Danian)===

===Paleocene (Danian)===

===Early to Middle Eocene===

===Early to Middle Eocene===

The early to middle Eocene was characterized by intense orogenic activity (50 Ma; [[:file:St58OverviewFG32.JPG|Figure 12]]). Early in the Eocene, the large-scale low-angle thrust sheets, or gravity nappes, that first moved in the Maastrichtian began to move at a greater rate. The volcanic section, along with the [[Oceanic crust|oceanic basement]], rode over the platform to deep water province, probably along the line separating the basic igneous-volcanic province from the platform to deep basin province. As thrusting proceeded, additional thrusts formed within the carbonate section in front of and north of the basic igneous-volcanic front. As a result, the thrust sheets were generally arranged from older and more southerly sourced at the top of the stack to younger and more northerly sourced at the base.

The early to middle Eocene was characterized by intense orogenic activity (50 Ma; [[:file:St58OverviewFG32.JPG|Figure 12]]). Early in the Eocene, the large-scale low-angle thrust sheets, or gravity nappes, that first moved in the Maastrichtian began to move at a greater rate. The volcanic section, along with the [[Oceanic crust|oceanic basement]], rode over the platform to deep water province, probably along the line separating the [[Wikipedia:Basic_rock|basic]] igneous-volcanic province from the platform to deep basin province. As thrusting proceeded, additional thrusts formed within the carbonate section in front of and north of the basic igneous-volcanic front. As a result, the thrust sheets were generally arranged from older and more southerly sourced at the top of the stack to younger and more northerly sourced at the base.

A large trough-shaped basin formed in front of the thrust sheets, deeper near the thrust front and shallower northward. Lower to middle Eocene flysch deposition in the trough began with sediments derived from limestones, such as the Sagua* and San Martin* formations, followed by an increase in volcanic and intrusive-derived detritus, such as the lower Vega* and lower Manacas (Pica Pica) formations, and finally, capped by the intrusive and volcanic-derived coarse conglomerates and wildflysch of the upper Vega* (Rosas*) and upper Manacas (Vieja) formations. In central Cuba, the rocks of the deep-water Vega* Formation became coarser grained through time. In western Cuba, the fine-grained clastics and other [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pelagic pelagic] sediments of the Manacas Formation changed abruptly to the coarse breccias of the Vieja Member. The breccia clasts reflect the lithology of the associated fault blocks. This suggests some subaerial erosion in central Cuba, whereas western Cuba was largely submarine.

A large trough-shaped basin formed in front of the thrust sheets, deeper near the thrust front and shallower northward. Lower to middle Eocene flysch deposition in the trough began with sediments derived from limestones, such as the Sagua* and San Martin* formations, followed by an increase in volcanic and intrusive-derived detritus, such as the lower Vega* and lower Manacas (Pica Pica) formations, and finally, capped by the intrusive and volcanic-derived coarse conglomerates and wildflysch of the upper Vega* (Rosas*) and upper Manacas (Vieja) formations. In central Cuba, the rocks of the deep-water Vega* Formation became coarser grained through time. In western Cuba, the fine-grained clastics and other [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pelagic pelagic] sediments of the Manacas Formation changed abruptly to the coarse breccias of the Vieja Member. The breccia clasts reflect the lithology of the associated fault blocks. This suggests some subaerial erosion in central Cuba, whereas western Cuba was largely submarine.