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Additionally, consumption of biological components of soils such as eggs and larvae of bacteria and fungi can lead to various kinds of diseases. For instance, ascariasis and trichuriasis are caused by the ingestion of Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura eggs respectively. Toxocariasis occurs through infection with the larvae of Toxocara canis or T. cati. Furthermore, hookworm is consumed through oral intake of Ancylostoma duodenale and A. ceylanicum (Selinus et al, 2013).
Additionally, consumption of biological components of soils such as eggs and larvae of bacteria and fungi can lead to various kinds of diseases. For instance, ascariasis and trichuriasis are caused by the ingestion of Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura eggs respectively. Toxocariasis occurs through infection with the larvae of Toxocara canis or T. cati. Furthermore, hookworm is consumed through oral intake of Ancylostoma duodenale and A. ceylanicum (Selinus et al, 2013).
==Therapeutic applications of medical geology==
From ancient times, man has explored geologic materials and put them to use for his well- being. Some of them had been used domestically while others have many industrial, as well as medical applications, depending on available technology.
Therapeutic application of medical geology refers to the use of geological materials in the treatment of diseases. Nigeria has a lot of potentials for the therapeutic applications of geologic materials. For instance, the country is blessed with thermal mineralized waters in various parts of the nation such as the Ikogosi Warm Spring in Ekiti State, the mineralized thermal springs at Awe in Nasarawa State and those in the onshore/offshore locations of Delta, Rivers, Cross Rivers, Edo, Bayelsa and Imo States. In addition, Nigeria is blessed with abundance of medicinal clays such as kaolin and bentonite in most states of the federation. Also, there is abundance of peat, trona and potash in some states (after Nghargbu et al, 2013).
Sadly, lack of technological know-how and fewer number of medical geology practitioners in Nigeria have limited the extraction of these resources for medical purposes.
A plunge into this untapped area has the potential to boost healthcare delivery in Nigeria while at the same time providing employment opportunities for many. The development of medical geology in Nigeria will undoubtedly boost the GDP of the country.
===Mineral/Medicinal waters at Awe, Nigeria===
There are five thermal mineralized springs at Awe, Nasarawa State. They include: Bitrus– a borehole, Tangarahu (Fig. 12), Ruwan Zafi, Ruwan Dumi and Ruwan Zafi Akiri, all located in the Central Benue Trough of Nigeria (Fig. 13).
[[FIG 12]]
[[FIG 13]]
The water of these springs is connate in nature; it was formed as a result of the trapping of ancient sea water in the Cretaceous host-beds of sandstone, silt and shale at Awe. They have high concentrations of sodium and chloride together with other cations and anions namely, thus they are termed chlorosodic. They form important sources of salt for the local community. The mineralization value of these springs is in the excess of 1000 mg/l; hence, their use for the treatment of orthopedic, dermatological, gynecological and respiratory tract diseases. According to Nghargbu et al (2013), these springs have temperatures ranging from 32.9 –46.5 oC (Table 7). This unique temperature range makes the waters of these springs good for the treatment of circulatory and vascular ailments. They are also needed in the treatment of vasodilation and inflammation.
[[TABLE 7]]
Based on consistent similarities observed from laboratory analyses, the Awe springs can be grouped into two namely: Ruwan Akiri, Ruwan Dumi and Tangarahu (Group 1) and Ruwan Zafi and Bitrus (Group 2).
Group 1 springs are low mineralization waters containing mainly sodium chloride with chlorosodic values of 0.58%, 0.67% and 0.86%, respectively (Nghargbu et al, 2013). They also contain iodine, calcium and magnesium. Group 2 springs are isotonic and have higher concentration of calcium and magnesium; they have chlorosodic value of 0.9%. With these qualities, they are good for medical treatment and prophylaxis (Nghargbu et al, 2013).
====Therapeutic action of the mineralized thermal springs====
The Group1 springs are applied in balneotherapy– the act of treating diseases by taking bath in mineralized water. During the bath (Fig. 14), sodium chloride gets into the keratose layer of the epidermise through osmosis. The bath can be done in basins or bath tubes.
[[FIG 14]]
However, to achieve maximum results, the bath is combined with physical exercise; this method is called balneokinezytherapy. This combined action can be applied in the treatment of the following diseases:
# Orthopaedic injuries,
# Arterial high blood pressure in 1st and 2nd period of the disease,
# Poor circulation of blood in lower limbs caused either by diabetes or sclerosis,
# Polineuropathy,
# Pareses and atrophy of muscles,
# Skin diseases: psoriases and allergies and
# Psychosomatic diseases (Nghargbu et al, 2013).
However, balneokinezytherapy should not be applied under the under-listed conditions:
# Non-stable coronary disease,
# Early period after heart failure,
# Cancer,
# Active tuberculosis and
# Pregnancy (Nghargbu et al, 2013).
Mineralized water from these springs can be used in shower baths in which the water is pressurized into a jet of water. This can be applied in the treatment of: high arterial blood pressure, nervous over-excitability and flabbiness of skin.
Another form of application is in balneological inhalations in which the mineralized water is dispersed in a carrier to form an aerosol. According to Nghargbu et al (2013), inhalation of the aerosol is used in clearing the respiratory tract and in the treatment of sore throat, chronic inflammation of the trachea (tracheitis) and chronic inflammation of the bronchia (bronchitis).
Furthermore, these springs are applied in krenotherapy– treatment of diseases by drinking saline water. This is used in the treatment of chronic inflammation and subacidity of stomach, heavy metal poisoning and constipation. Additionally, saline water can be used in flushing the mouth to remove bacteria and secretions. However, krenotherapy should not be used on a patient with poor blood circulation, poor performance of kidney, active ulcer of stomach, diarrhoea and ulcer of duodenum (Nghargbu et al, 2013).
Conversely, the Group 2 springs are isotonic and compatible with the osmotic pressure of the human blood. They are used the same way as the Group 1 springs although their action is mild (Nghargbu et al, 2013).
===Bentonite===
Bentonite is an absorbent aluminum phylosilicate rock containing mostly montmorillonite. It is formed mainly from volcanic ash. The name comes from the largest known deposit of bentonite clay located in Fort Benton, Wyoming, USA. It is a unique clay due to its ability to produce electronegative charge when hydrated giving it the ability to attract and neutralize toxins which are electropositive. When mixed with water, bentonite rapidly swells open like a highly porous sponge, making the toxins and heavy metal to be drawn in through electrical attraction without leaching away any of its beneficial elements. This phenomenon prevents toxic molecules from passing through the walls of the intestines and entering the bloodstream; instead, they are eliminated from the body through the kidneys.
Based on the above properties, bentonite is an important healing clay. It can be applied on the skin to remove eczema and also applied on the face (Fig. 15) and other parts of the body as a cream where it leaves the skin smooth and radiant (Knishinsky, 1998).
[[FIG 15]]
===Kaolin===
Kaolin is made up of the clay mineral, kaolinite with the chemical composition Al2Si2O5(OH)4. Kaolinite is a layered silicate mineral, with one tetrahedral sheet linked through oxygen atoms to one octahedral sheet of alumina octahedra. It is also known as China clay. Kaolinite has low shrink-swell capacity and low cation exchange capacity (Selinus et al, 2013). It is a soft, earthy, usually white mineral produced by the chemical weathering of aluminosilicate minerals such as feldspars. In many parts of the world, it is colored pink, orange or red by iron oxide, giving it a distinct rust hue. Lighter concentrations yield white, yellow or light orange colours (Selinus et al, 2013).
Kaolin is used for the treatment of mild-to-moderate diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera. It is also used in combination products for the treatment of inflammation and soreness of the mouth. Such products are also used for the treatment of ulcers and inflammation of the large intestine (Nghargbu et al, 2013).
===Milk of Magnesia===
Milk of magnesia is a name given to magnesium hydroxide – an inorganic compound with the formula, “Mg(OH)2”. It forms a milk-like appearance when in suspension, hence the name. The solid mineral form of magnesium hydroxide is brucite [Mg(OH)2] which occurs in clay minerals especially in chlorite. Brucite occupies the interlayer position which is normally occupied by monovalent and divalent cations such as Na+, K+, Mg+ and Ca+ in chlorite. In this manner, chlorite interlayer is cemented by brucite and can neither swell nor shrink (Zumdahl, 2009).
Milk of magnesia is used as an antacid to neutralize stomach acid. Hydroxide ions from the Mg(OH)2 combine with acidic hydroxide (H+) ions produced from hydrochloric acid by parietal cells in the stomach to produce water. It is made into capsules and chewable tablets for use against constipation and indigestion ().
As a laxative, milk of magnesia absorbs fluid from the body, through osmotic pressure, into the lumen of the small intestine while retaining the fluid already in the small intestine (Pradyot, 2002). First, Mg2+ is poorly absorbed from the intestinal tract, so it draws water from the surrounding tissue by osmosis. Not only does this increase the water content, it softens the faeces and increases the volume of faeces in the intestine which naturally stimulates intestinal motility. Furthermore, Mg2+ ions cause the release of cholecystokinin (CCK) which results in intraluminal accumulation of water, electrolytes and increased intestinal motility. This stimulates the nerves of the colon to distend leading to peristalsis culminating in the evacuation of its contents.
[[FIG 16]]
===Plaster of Paris===
Plaster of Paris is made by calcining gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O). This process involves heating gypsum to very high temperatures to form calcium sulphate. The calcium sulphate so formed is then grinded to powder. When water is added to this powder, a slurry is formed with the release of heat according to the equation:
: <math>Equation</math>
The slurry can be molded in several ways. After cooling, it sets into a firm solid matrix that is very smooth. This material is used to hold broken anatomical structures such as the limbs (Fig. 17) until healing is completed (Sourced from: www.wisegeek.com on 31/03/2014).
[[FIG 17]]
===Alkaline Water===
Alkaline water, also known as ionized water, is water that has a pH level greater than eight; it is produced to improve longevity (Fig.18). It removes oxidants, detoxifies the cells, enhances blood circulation and removes pathogens.
[[FIG 18]]
It supplies the cells with Na, Mg, K and Ca and increases the body metabolism. According to Tan Koon (2013), it provides negative Oxidation-Reduction Potential (ORP), thereby slowing down the ageing process.
It is made using 13 different materials such as tourmaline, zeolite, clay, calcium ion pellet, magnesium and negative potential pellet (Fig. 19).
[[FIG 19]]
Tourmaline electrolyzes the water by generating negative ions, thus reducing water cluster. Zeolite is negatively charged; it easily absorbs free radicals and viral particles. It traps nitrosamines in the digestive tract to cancel any chance of type II diabetes. Due to its negative charge, zeolite can attract toxins such as heavy metals, pesticides and herbicides. These can then pass safely out of the body without re-absorption (Tan Koon, 2013).
Clay is used in flask due to its adsorption properties. It neutralizes poisons in the digestive tract and fights viral infection and stomach flu.
==Summary and conclusion==
Rocks are the fundamental building blocks of the earth’s surface containing various minerals and chemical elements. These minerals and chemical elements are released from rocks through the process of weathering to form soil upon which plants and animals are raised. Such elements of importance to medical geology include: arsenic, iodine, selenium, fluorine, lead, mercury and cadmium which are trace elements. An overabundance of any of these chemical elements in the soil would lead to adverse health effects should plants or animals raised on the soil be consumed. Conversely, deficiency of any of the afore- mentioned trace elements has been proven to cause adverse health effects. In addition, consumption of water from boreholes, springs, lakes or rivers is a possible route through which people ingest trace elements. The inhalation of geogenic dust, volcanic dust and gas is another proven route through which these trace elements can be contacted. Evidently, the right balance is just needed; unfortunately, this is not obtainable in some parts of the world. This has lead to the outbreak of various diseases in the unfortunate regions.
The excessiveness of arsenic causes arsenosis which has taken its toll on the populations of China, Bangladesh and Zimbabwe. Common diseases manifested in the victims include: hyperpigmentation of the skin, skin tumours, ulceration of the foot, liver dysfunction and gangrene. Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDD) is another health issue arising from the geology of an area. It manifests as goiter, cretinism, reduced IQ, miscarriages and birth defects in the Kerio District of Kenya and China.
Another health issue in medical geology is Keshan disease. It occurs as a result of the deficiency of selenium; this leads to the deterioration of the heart muscle. Conversely, overabundance of selenium causes hair loss, edema of the lungs and bronchoalveolitis. It is also worthy to note that selenium has the propensity to inhibit the replication of HIV-1. The deficiency of this element in the soils of southern African countries is the reason behind the high rate of the virus in the region.
More so, medical geology studies the health effects of the deficiency and excessiveness of fluorine in rivers, streams and lakes. Collectively, adverse health effects caused by fluoride are known as fluorosis. It manifests as tooth decay (dental fluorosis) and rickets (skeletal fluorosis) in the victim. The region most hit by fluoride imbalance is the region around Lake Nakuru in the Kenyan Rift Valley. Other countries affected by fluoride imbalance include: Malawi, Zimbabwe and Ethiopia.
In Jamaica, high concentration of cadmium in phosphatic bands has led to the loss of calcium in the anatomical structures of the victims. Thus, bones become fragile leading to the development of fractures. The victim suffers from pain in the limbs, backaches and pain in the pubic bones.
Through the study of medical geology, it has been observed that the release of radon gas from uranium deposits is the cause of lung cancer amongst uranium miners. People living near such deposits are also at risk, as radon gas could migrate into buildings through the windows, cracks on the floor and fittings. Countries with uranium deposits are thus in danger of the adverse health effects of inhaling radon. Such countries are: South Africa, Nigeria, Mauritania, Chad and Morocco.
Harmattan dust is another source of health problem to man. It transports minerals such as quartz, feldspar, mica and particles of animal, vegetable and those of microbial origin. Its impact is felt by people living in deserts and people living around the deserts. In Nigeria, inhalation of harmattan dust, from December to February, puts stress on the respiratory system leading to catarrh and heightens the severity of asthma in patients suffering from asthma.
Notwithstanding its many applications, inhalation of asbestos can lead to asbestosis– a fatal lung cancer. This has forced most western countries to ban its use. But, South Africa still produces asbestos from the metamorphosed Precambrian sedimentary strata (banded ironstone) in the Transvaal Super Group.
Geophagy–the eating of shale, clay and soil– is also studied under the umbrella of medical geology. Some tribes eat these geologic materials as food, food detoxifier and for pharmaceutical reasons due to the cation exchange capability of clay and shale while other tribes eat these geological materials for cultural reasons and for their nutritional values. This is practiced in most parts of Igboland in Nigeria. In Aguata local government area of Anambra State, Nigeria, it is called atapele by the natives. It is mostly consumed by pregnant women in this area with the belief that it aids the formation of skeletal materials in the fetus. Other tribes practicing geophagy are the Luo tribe of western Kenya and the Aymara and Quechua tribe who inhabit the Andes of Bolivia and Peru.
However, geophagy can cause potassium deficiency–hypokalemia and anemia. More so, through the consumption of geophagical materials, eggs of ''Ascaris lumbricoides'' and ''Trichuris trichuria'' in the soil could be ingested leading to ascariasis and trichuriasis.
Medical geology is also concerned with the use of geologic materials for the treatment of various diseases. Five chlorosodic warm springs at Awe namely: Ruwan Akiri, Ruwan Dumi, Tangarahu Ruwan Zafi and Bitrus have proven to be efficient in the treatment of orthopaedic injuries, arterial high blood pressure, poor circulation of blood in the lower limbs caused either by diabetes or sclerosis. They can also be used in the treatment of polineuropathy, pareses and atrophy of muscles. The mineralized water is used through balneotherapy– the science of treating diseases by bathing in mineralized waters. Chlorosodic water from these springs can also be applied in treatment through oral intake.
Medical geology has also found bentonite be a potential pharmaceutical material. When used, it removes toxins, bacteria and heavy metals from the body by producing negative ions when hydrated. It is applied on the skin for the removal of eczema and on the face to make it smooth and radiant.
The mineral brucite from chlorite is used as an excellent antacid and a laxative in the form of magnesium hydroxide, commonly known as milk of magnesia. It is applied in the treatment of constipation, indigestion and heartburn.
In conclusion, medical geology has the potential to improve the health status of the citizenry through a collaborative effort from a team of professionals from geology, geography, medicine and biochemistry. Evidently, medical geology believes that health is wealth.
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