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Medical Geology is a multi-disciplinary field of study in geology which studies the health effects of geologic materials and processes on humans. Such health effects can be good, or possibly hazardous. Medical Geology integrates professionals from medicine, geography and geology to handle problems accruing from the geology of an area. Three aspects of geology are relevant for a comprehensive study of health problems arising from the geology of a particular environment, namely: mineralogy, geochemistry and hydrogeology. Hazardous effects are caused by the excessiveness or deficiency of essential and non- essential trace elements such as: As, F-, I- , Se, Rn, Mn, Cd and Pb. For instance, excessiveness of arsenic in coals in China has lead to a toxic effect called arsenosis– the ulceration of the hands and feet; deficiency of iodine in the soil leads to goiter –the enlargement of the thyroid gland, while the excessiveness of fluoride in rocks leading to various forms of fluorosis which can manifest in the dissolution of apatite crystals of the enamel. This multidisciplinary field of geology also probes into the benefits and banes of eating soil, clay and shale –a practice called geophagy. Through the study of Medical Geology, however, some geologic materials have been found useful in the pharmaceutical, medical and cosmetic industries. These include medicinal/mineralized waters applied in the treatment of various skin diseases, such as rashes and eczema, as they contain elements such as Na, Ca, Mg, Cl, K, I, Br and Fe. Bathing in such mineralized waters―a process called balneotherapy―helps in taking these elements into the body through osmosis. Alkaline water production using tourmaline (Ca, K, Na)(Al, Fe, Li, Mg, Mn)3(Al, Cr, Fe, V)6(BO3)3(Si, Al, B)6O18(OH, F)4, and zeolite (Na2Al2Si3O10.2H2O ) is another important application of Medical Geology. Alkaline water negates the Oxidation-Reduction Potential of body toxins and increases the body pH up to 8. As most processed foodstuffs are acidic, the intake of alkaline water will raise the alkalinity of the body leading to increased longevity. Kaolin and bentonite –the healing clays– are applied in the treatment of gastrointestinal diseases; they have net negative surface charges with which they attract toxins. Toxins are then adsorbed into the structure of the clay mineral, and thus removed. Medical Geology also has important application in the manufacture of plaster of Paris. It is produced by calcining gypsum to produce a strong material used in holding fractured anatomical structures of the body in place until healing is completed. Production of milk of magnesia from brucite [Mg(OH)2]―magnesium hydroxide―is another important application of Medical Geology. Milk of magnesia is an antacid and interferes with the adsorption of folic acid in the stomach; it helps in maintaining the stomach pH and in the detoxification of the stomach.

Medical Geology is a multi-disciplinary field of study in geology which studies the health effects of geologic materials and processes on humans. Such health effects can be good, or possibly hazardous. Medical Geology integrates professionals from medicine, geography and geology to handle problems accruing from the geology of an area. Three aspects of geology are relevant for a comprehensive study of health problems arising from the geology of a particular environment, namely: mineralogy, geochemistry and hydrogeology. Hazardous effects are caused by the excessiveness or deficiency of essential and non- essential trace elements such as: As, F-, I- , Se, Rn, Mn, Cd and Pb. For instance, excessiveness of arsenic in coals in China has lead to a toxic effect called arsenosis– the ulceration of the hands and feet; deficiency of iodine in the soil leads to goiter –the enlargement of the thyroid gland, while the excessiveness of fluoride in rocks leading to various forms of fluorosis which can manifest in the dissolution of apatite crystals of the enamel. This multidisciplinary field of geology also probes into the benefits and banes of eating soil, clay and shale –a practice called geophagy. Through the study of Medical Geology, however, some geologic materials have been found useful in the pharmaceutical, medical and cosmetic industries. These include medicinal/mineralized waters applied in the treatment of various skin diseases, such as rashes and eczema, as they contain elements such as Na, Ca, Mg, Cl, K, I, Br and Fe. Bathing in such mineralized waters―a process called balneotherapy―helps in taking these elements into the body through osmosis. Alkaline water production using tourmaline (Ca, K, Na)(Al, Fe, Li, Mg, Mn)3(Al, Cr, Fe, V)6(BO3)3(Si, Al, B)6O18(OH, F)4, and zeolite (Na2Al2Si3O10.2H2O ) is another important application of Medical Geology. Alkaline water negates the Oxidation-Reduction Potential of body toxins and increases the body pH up to 8. As most processed foodstuffs are acidic, the intake of alkaline water will raise the alkalinity of the body leading to increased longevity. Kaolin and [[bentonite]]-–the healing clays–-are applied in the treatment of gastrointestinal diseases; they have net negative surface charges with which they attract toxins. Toxins are then adsorbed into the structure of the clay mineral, and thus removed. Medical Geology also has important application in the manufacture of plaster of Paris. It is produced by calcining gypsum to produce a strong material used in holding fractured anatomical structures of the body in place until healing is completed. Production of milk of magnesia from brucite [Mg(OH)2]―magnesium hydroxide―is another important application of Medical Geology. Milk of magnesia is an antacid and interferes with the adsorption of folic acid in the stomach; it helps in maintaining the stomach pH and in the detoxification of the stomach.

==Introduction to medical geology==

==Introduction to medical geology==

====Geophagy for pharmaceutical reasons====

====Geophagy for pharmaceutical reasons====

From ancient times, soils and clays had been used as pharmaceuticals by humans for the treatment of various diseases. Such practices still persist in the modern world. In Europe, the various varieties of the soil, terra sigillata, have been used for over 2,000 years for the treatment of a number of health problems such as bites and stings of venomous animals, malignant ulcers, nose bleeds, gout, dysentery and poisoning.<ref name=Setal2013 /> The effectiveness of terra sigillata is attributed to the ion exchange capacity of the soil. As a result, bentonite– enriched in the clay mineral montmorillonite– is extensively used in the developed nations as an antidote to poisons. Also, kaolin is used in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders such as gastrodynia (stomachache), dyspepsia (acid indigestion), nausea and diarrhea.

From ancient times, soils and clays had been used as pharmaceuticals by humans for the treatment of various diseases. Such practices still persist in the modern world. In Europe, the various varieties of the soil, terra sigillata, have been used for over 2,000 years for the treatment of a number of health problems such as bites and stings of venomous animals, malignant ulcers, nose bleeds, gout, dysentery and poisoning.<ref name=Setal2013 /> The effectiveness of terra sigillata is attributed to the ion exchange capacity of the soil. As a result, [[bentonite]]– enriched in the clay mineral montmorillonite– is extensively used in the developed nations as an antidote to poisons. Also, kaolin is used in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders such as gastrodynia (stomachache), dyspepsia (acid indigestion), nausea and diarrhea.

In Nigeria, 400–500 tonnes of Paleocene shale collected from the village of Uzalla situated in Orhionmw, Edo State is used for the treatment of dysenteric ailments; this is called eko by the villagers.<ref name=Setal2013 />

In Nigeria, 400–500 tonnes of Paleocene shale collected from the village of Uzalla situated in Orhionmw, Edo State is used for the treatment of dysenteric ailments; this is called eko by the villagers.<ref name=Setal2013 />

From ancient times, man has explored geologic materials and put them to use for his well- being. Some of them had been used domestically while others have many industrial, as well as medical applications, depending on available technology.

From ancient times, man has explored geologic materials and put them to use for his well- being. Some of them had been used domestically while others have many industrial, as well as medical applications, depending on available technology.

Therapeutic application of medical geology refers to the use of geological materials in the treatment of diseases. Nigeria has a lot of potentials for the therapeutic applications of geologic materials. For instance, the country is blessed with thermal mineralized waters in various parts of the nation such as the Ikogosi Warm Spring in Ekiti State, the mineralized thermal springs at Awe in Nasarawa State and those in the onshore/offshore locations of Delta, Rivers, Cross Rivers, Edo, Bayelsa and Imo States. In addition, Nigeria is blessed with abundance of medicinal clays such as kaolin and bentonite in most states of the federation. Also, there is abundance of peat, trona and potash in some states (after Nghargbu et al, 2013<ref name=Ngha>Nghargbu, K., Ponikowska, I., Latour, T., Kurowska, E., Schoeneich, K., and Alagbe, S.A., 2013a. Balneo-therapeutic Quality of Water from Thermal Chlorosodic Springs of the Middle Benue Trough, Nigeria. Unpublished Work, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria,1-9.</ref><ref name=Nghb>Nghargbu, K., Ponikowska, I., Latour, T., Kurowska, E., Schoeneich, K., and Alagbe, S.A. 2013b. Geomedical Resources Inventory: The Nigerian Content. Unpublished Work, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria, 1-15.</ref>).

Therapeutic application of medical geology refers to the use of geological materials in the treatment of diseases. Nigeria has a lot of potentials for the therapeutic applications of geologic materials. For instance, the country is blessed with thermal mineralized waters in various parts of the nation such as the Ikogosi Warm Spring in Ekiti State, the mineralized thermal springs at Awe in Nasarawa State and those in the onshore/offshore locations of Delta, Rivers, Cross Rivers, Edo, Bayelsa and Imo States. In addition, Nigeria is blessed with abundance of medicinal clays such as kaolin and [[bentonite]] in most states of the federation. Also, there is abundance of peat, trona and potash in some states (after Nghargbu et al, 2013<ref name=Ngha>Nghargbu, K., Ponikowska, I., Latour, T., Kurowska, E., Schoeneich, K., and Alagbe, S.A., 2013a. Balneo-therapeutic Quality of Water from Thermal Chlorosodic Springs of the Middle Benue Trough, Nigeria. Unpublished Work, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria,1-9.</ref><ref name=Nghb>Nghargbu, K., Ponikowska, I., Latour, T., Kurowska, E., Schoeneich, K., and Alagbe, S.A. 2013b. Geomedical Resources Inventory: The Nigerian Content. Unpublished Work, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria, 1-15.</ref>).

Sadly, lack of technological know-how and fewer number of medical geology practitioners in Nigeria have limited the extraction of these resources for medical purposes.

Sadly, lack of technological know-how and fewer number of medical geology practitioners in Nigeria have limited the extraction of these resources for medical purposes.

[[File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_15.png|thumb|400px|{{figure number|15}}Application of bentonite cream on the face.<ref name=Ngha /><ref name=Nghb />]]

[[File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_15.png|thumb|400px|{{figure number|15}}Application of bentonite cream on the face.<ref name=Ngha /><ref name=Nghb />]]

Bentonite is an absorbent aluminum phylosilicate rock containing mostly montmorillonite. It is formed mainly from volcanic ash. The name comes from the largest known deposit of bentonite clay located in Fort Benton, Wyoming, USA. It is a unique clay due to its ability to produce electronegative charge when hydrated giving it the ability to attract and neutralize toxins which are electropositive. When mixed with water, bentonite rapidly swells open like a highly porous sponge, making the toxins and heavy metal to be drawn in through electrical attraction without leaching away any of its beneficial elements. This phenomenon prevents toxic molecules from passing through the walls of the intestines and entering the bloodstream; instead, they are eliminated from the body through the kidneys.

[[Bentonite]] is an absorbent aluminum phylosilicate rock containing mostly montmorillonite. It is formed mainly from volcanic ash. The name comes from the largest known deposit of bentonite clay located in Fort Benton, Wyoming, USA. It is a unique clay due to its ability to produce electronegative charge when hydrated giving it the ability to attract and neutralize toxins which are electropositive. When mixed with water, bentonite rapidly swells open like a highly porous sponge, making the toxins and heavy metal to be drawn in through electrical attraction without leaching away any of its beneficial elements. This phenomenon prevents toxic molecules from passing through the walls of the intestines and entering the bloodstream; instead, they are eliminated from the body through the kidneys.

Based on the above properties, bentonite is an important healing clay. It can be applied on the skin to remove eczema and also applied on the face ([[:File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_15.png|Figure 15]]) and other parts of the body as a cream where it leaves the skin smooth and radiant.<ref>Knishinsky, R., 1998, The Clay Cure. Healing Arts Press, Rochester, 112p.</ref>

Based on the above properties, bentonite is an important healing clay. It can be applied on the skin to remove eczema and also applied on the face ([[:File:UNN_Medical_Geology_Fig_15.png|Figure 15]]) and other parts of the body as a cream where it leaves the skin smooth and radiant.<ref>Knishinsky, R., 1998, The Clay Cure. Healing Arts Press, Rochester, 112p.</ref>

Medical geology is also concerned with the use of geologic materials for the treatment of various diseases. Five chlorosodic warm springs at Awe namely: Ruwan Akiri, Ruwan Dumi, Tangarahu Ruwan Zafi and Bitrus have proven to be efficient in the treatment of orthopaedic injuries, arterial high blood pressure, poor circulation of blood in the lower limbs caused either by diabetes or sclerosis. They can also be used in the treatment of polineuropathy, pareses and atrophy of muscles. The mineralized water is used through balneotherapy– the science of treating diseases by bathing in mineralized waters. Chlorosodic water from these springs can also be applied in treatment through oral intake.

Medical geology is also concerned with the use of geologic materials for the treatment of various diseases. Five chlorosodic warm springs at Awe namely: Ruwan Akiri, Ruwan Dumi, Tangarahu Ruwan Zafi and Bitrus have proven to be efficient in the treatment of orthopaedic injuries, arterial high blood pressure, poor circulation of blood in the lower limbs caused either by diabetes or sclerosis. They can also be used in the treatment of polineuropathy, pareses and atrophy of muscles. The mineralized water is used through balneotherapy– the science of treating diseases by bathing in mineralized waters. Chlorosodic water from these springs can also be applied in treatment through oral intake.

Medical geology has also found bentonite be a potential pharmaceutical material. When used, it removes toxins, bacteria and heavy metals from the body by producing negative ions when hydrated. It is applied on the skin for the removal of eczema and on the face to make it smooth and radiant.

Medical geology has also found [[bentonite]] to be a potential pharmaceutical material. When used, it removes toxins, bacteria and heavy metals from the body by producing negative ions when hydrated. It is applied on the skin for the removal of eczema and on the face to make it smooth and radiant.

The mineral brucite from chlorite is used as an excellent antacid and a laxative in the form of magnesium hydroxide, commonly known as milk of magnesia. It is applied in the treatment of constipation, indigestion and heartburn.

The mineral brucite from chlorite is used as an excellent antacid and a laxative in the form of magnesium hydroxide, commonly known as milk of magnesia. It is applied in the treatment of constipation, indigestion and heartburn.