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Jurassic and Cretaceous source rocks are important across the Tethyan Margin and account for the majority of the petroleum generated in Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, Iran, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Libya and Turkey. Nearly all of the more than 137 Bbo and 106 Tcfg that occur in over 100 fields in Iraq have been generated from extremely organic-rich Jurassic and Cretaceous source rocks.<ref name=Grabowski_2014 /> The organic-rich Jurassic and Cretaceous source rocks extend into Syria.<ref name=Barrieretal_2014>Barrier, Eric, Louai Machhour, and Marc Blaizot, 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/335_aapg-sp1960335.htm Petroleum systems of Syria], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 335-378.</ref> Jurassic source and reservoir are equally important in Saudi Arabia, where they have resulted in the world’s largest conventional oil field, Ghawar.<ref name=Cantrelletal_2014>Cantrell, D. L., P. G. Nicholson, G. W. Hughes, M. A. Miller, A. G. Bhullar, S. T. Abdelbagi, and A. K. Norton, 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/613_aapg-sp1960613.htm Tethyan petroleum systems of Saudi Arabia], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 613-639.</ref> Yemen, which remains an overall frontier area, has established basins (Sab’atayn and Say’un-Masilah) with proven Jurassic and Cretaceous source rocks where recent oil discoveries were made in the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous carbonates and clastics.<ref name=Assaruriandsorkhabi_2014>As-Saruri, Mustafa, and Rasoul Sorkhabi, 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/757_aapg-sp1960757.htm Petroleum systems and basins of Yemen], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 757-780.</ref> Aptian/Albian source rocks in Iran have charged the oil in dominantly carbonate Cenomanian and Lower Miocene reservoirs in the Zagros Mountain anticlines; with these reservoirs accounting for an estimated 8% of global oil reserves.<ref name=Bordenave_2014>Bordenave, M. L., 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/505_aapg-sp1960505.htm Petroleum systems and distribution of the oil and gas fields in the Iranian part of the Tethyan region], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 505-540.</ref> In Turkey, Middle Cretaceous source rocks are probably responsible for charging the majority of the reservoirs in this country.<ref name=Derman_2014>Derman, Ahmet Sami (A. S.), 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/469_aapg-sp1960469.htm Petroleum systems of Turkish basins], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 469-504.</ref> In Libya, the Campanian sedimentary section forms world class source rocks with great generative potential.<ref name=Hassanandkendall_2014 /> Upper Cretaceous source rocks have sourced 85% of Libya’s 45 Bboe reserves.<ref name=Hassanandkendall_2014 /> Egypt has multiple proven source rocks in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic sections.<ref name=Dolsonetal_2014 /> In Lebanon, numerous shows/seeps are likely generated from Mesozoic sources,<ref name=Nader_2014>Nader, F. H., 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/241_aapg-sp1960241.htm Insights into the petroleum prospectivity of Lebanon], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 241-278.</ref> while in Israel 16 oil and gas fields exist that have been sourced by dominantly Mesozoic source rocks.<ref name=Gardoshandtannenbaum_2014>Gardosh, Michael A., and Eli Tannenbaum, 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/179_aapg-sp1960179.htm The petroleum systems of Israel], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 179-216.</ref> Triassic-Jurassic-Cretaceous source rocks that exists onshore of the Eastern Mediterranean<ref name=Dolsonetal_2014 /> <ref name=Hassanandkendall_2014 /> <ref name=Nader_2014 /> <ref name=Gardoshandtannenbaum_2014 /> <ref name=Montadertetal_2014>Montadert, Lucien, Stelios Nicolaides, Per Helge Semb, and Øystein Lie, 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/301_aapg-sp1960301.htm Petroleum systems offshore Cyprus], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 301-334.</ref> <ref name=Barrieretal_2014 /> likely extend into the East Mediterranean-Levantine Basin.<ref name=Montadertetal_2014 /> <ref name=Marlow_2014>Marlow, Lisa, 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/279_aapg-sp1960279.htm Tectonostratigraphic history and petroleum potential of the Levantine basin, eastern Mediterranean], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 279-299.</ref> In the southeastern part of the Levantine Basin, the Mango well tested Lower Cretaceous sands (10,000 bo/d); these sands are likely charged from Jurassic source rocks.<ref name=Dolsonetal_2014 /> <ref name=Marlow_2014 />
Jurassic and Cretaceous source rocks are important across the Tethyan Margin and account for the majority of the petroleum generated in Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, Iran, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Libya and Turkey. Nearly all of the more than 137 Bbo and 106 Tcfg that occur in over 100 fields in Iraq have been generated from extremely organic-rich Jurassic and Cretaceous source rocks.<ref name=Grabowski_2014 /> The organic-rich Jurassic and Cretaceous source rocks extend into Syria.<ref name=Barrieretal_2014>Barrier, Eric, Louai Machhour, and Marc Blaizot, 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/335_aapg-sp1960335.htm Petroleum systems of Syria], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 335-378.</ref> Jurassic source and reservoir are equally important in Saudi Arabia, where they have resulted in the world’s largest conventional oil field, Ghawar.<ref name=Cantrelletal_2014>Cantrell, D. L., P. G. Nicholson, G. W. Hughes, M. A. Miller, A. G. Bhullar, S. T. Abdelbagi, and A. K. Norton, 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/613_aapg-sp1960613.htm Tethyan petroleum systems of Saudi Arabia], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 613-639.</ref> Yemen, which remains an overall frontier area, has established basins (Sab’atayn and Say’un-Masilah) with proven Jurassic and Cretaceous source rocks where recent oil discoveries were made in the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous carbonates and clastics.<ref name=Assaruriandsorkhabi_2014>As-Saruri, Mustafa, and Rasoul Sorkhabi, 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/757_aapg-sp1960757.htm Petroleum systems and basins of Yemen], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 757-780.</ref> Aptian/Albian source rocks in Iran have charged the oil in dominantly carbonate Cenomanian and Lower Miocene reservoirs in the Zagros Mountain anticlines; with these reservoirs accounting for an estimated 8% of global oil reserves.<ref name=Bordenave_2014>Bordenave, M. L., 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/505_aapg-sp1960505.htm Petroleum systems and distribution of the oil and gas fields in the Iranian part of the Tethyan region], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 505-540.</ref> In Turkey, Middle Cretaceous source rocks are probably responsible for charging the majority of the reservoirs in this country.<ref name=Derman_2014>Derman, Ahmet Sami (A. S.), 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/469_aapg-sp1960469.htm Petroleum systems of Turkish basins], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 469-504.</ref> In Libya, the Campanian sedimentary section forms world class source rocks with great generative potential.<ref name=Hassanandkendall_2014 /> Upper Cretaceous source rocks have sourced 85% of Libya’s 45 Bboe reserves.<ref name=Hassanandkendall_2014 /> Egypt has multiple proven source rocks in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic sections.<ref name=Dolsonetal_2014 /> In Lebanon, numerous shows/seeps are likely generated from Mesozoic sources,<ref name=Nader_2014>Nader, F. H., 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/241_aapg-sp1960241.htm Insights into the petroleum prospectivity of Lebanon], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 241-278.</ref> while in Israel 16 oil and gas fields exist that have been sourced by dominantly Mesozoic source rocks.<ref name=Gardoshandtannenbaum_2014>Gardosh, Michael A., and Eli Tannenbaum, 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/179_aapg-sp1960179.htm The petroleum systems of Israel], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 179-216.</ref> Triassic-Jurassic-Cretaceous source rocks that exists onshore of the Eastern Mediterranean<ref name=Dolsonetal_2014 /> <ref name=Hassanandkendall_2014 /> <ref name=Nader_2014 /> <ref name=Gardoshandtannenbaum_2014 /> <ref name=Montadertetal_2014>Montadert, Lucien, Stelios Nicolaides, Per Helge Semb, and Øystein Lie, 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/301_aapg-sp1960301.htm Petroleum systems offshore Cyprus], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 301-334.</ref> <ref name=Barrieretal_2014 /> likely extend into the East Mediterranean-Levantine Basin.<ref name=Montadertetal_2014 /> <ref name=Marlow_2014>Marlow, Lisa, 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/279_aapg-sp1960279.htm Tectonostratigraphic history and petroleum potential of the Levantine basin, eastern Mediterranean], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 279-299.</ref> In the southeastern part of the Levantine Basin, the Mango well tested Lower Cretaceous sands (10,000 bo/d); these sands are likely charged from Jurassic source rocks.<ref name=Dolsonetal_2014 /> <ref name=Marlow_2014 />
Although Jurassic and Cretaceous source rocks are very important for the Tethyan region, there are other regionally correlative proven or potential source rocks of Triassic age.<ref name=Grabowski_2014 /> <ref name=Barrieretal_2014 /> <ref name=Dolsonetal_2014 /> <ref name=Hassanandkendall_2014 /> <ref name=Nader_2014 /> <ref name=Lüningandkuss_2014 /> <ref name=Cantrelletal_2014 /> <ref name=Alsharhanetal_2014>Alsharhan, Abdulrahman S., Christian J. Strohmenger, and Abdulla Al-Mansorri, 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/679_aapg-sp1960679.htm Mesozoic petroleum systems of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates], '' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 679-711.</ref> Cenozoic source rock potential also exists in some deeper basins where the source rocks may be mature.<ref name=Marlow_2014 /> Though there are many proven plays in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic across the Tethyan Margin, there are significant areas that remain undrilled. Correlating stratigraphy and hydrocarbon systems across the margin will undoubtedly facilitate the growth of new exploration ideas and new production.
Although Jurassic and Cretaceous source rocks are very important for the Tethyan region, there are other regionally correlative proven or potential source rocks of Triassic age.<ref name=Grabowski_2014 /> <ref name=Barrieretal_2014 /> <ref name=Dolsonetal_2014 /> <ref name=Hassanandkendall_2014 /> <ref name=Nader_2014 /> <ref name=Lüningandkuss_2014 /> <ref name=Cantrelletal_2014 /> <ref name=Alsharhanetal_2014>Alsharhan, Abdulrahman S., Christian J. Strohmenger, and Abdulla Al-Mansorri, 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/679_aapg-sp1960679.htm Mesozoic petroleum systems of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 679-711.</ref> Cenozoic source rock potential also exists in some deeper basins where the source rocks may be mature.<ref name=Marlow_2014 /> Though there are many proven plays in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic across the Tethyan Margin, there are significant areas that remain undrilled. Correlating stratigraphy and hydrocarbon systems across the margin will undoubtedly facilitate the growth of new exploration ideas and new production.
==Future potential and new approaches==
==Future potential and new approaches==
Though the Tethyan Margin is a prolific hydrocarbon province, discovering additional hydrocarbons in mature basins and in frontier areas will need an integrated approach to exploration and development, including:
#Selective acquisition of new seismic and well data,
#Application of exploration concepts and the challenging of old dogmas,
#Application of new technology,
#Pursuit of unconventional resources,
#Extrapolation of onshore hydrocarbon systems to offshore areas, and
#Evaluation of new play types, i.e. subsalt and stratigraphic plays.
Notable examples that support these points include:
#Acquisition of 2-D and 3-D seismic surveys in the Levantine Basin that has been a key factor in exploration success and recent discoveries by Noble Energy.<ref name=Marlow_2014 /> <ref name=Gardoshandtannenbaum_2014 /> <ref name=Montadertetal_2014 /> The recent discoveries in Miocene plays in the Levantine Basin have led to changes in the USGS’s estimate of undiscovered reserves in the basin from zero to 122 Tcfg gas and 1.7 Bbo oil.<ref name=Marlow_2014 /> <ref name=Montadertetal_2014 /> <ref name=Gardoshandtannenbaum_2014 /> <ref name=Nader_2014 />
#New exploration concepts and challenging dogmas will lead to discoveries in immature and mature basins. In the Levantine Basin there are numerous play types that have yet to be tested.<ref name=Nader_2014 /> <ref name=Marlow_2014 /> <ref name=Gardoshandtannenbaum_2014 /> <ref name=Montadertetal_2014 /> In the past, the Levantine basin was overlooked partly because it was thought to be underlain by oceanic crust. Challenging dogmas like this and other early assumptions can open up new areas for exploration. Lebanon is under-explored and has undiscovered potential, including the Triassic which is the top producer in Syria.<ref name=Nader_2014 /> In Upper Egypt, the Kom Ombo Basin has had recent discoveries of commercial oil in a basin roughly the size of the Gulf of Suez.<ref name=Dolsonetal_2014 /> Yemen has several frontier onshore basins including the San’a Basin that may have working petroleum systems in the Paleozoic and Mesozoic sections.<ref name=Assaruriandsorkhabi_2014 /> The Rub’ Al-Khali Basin, part of which extends partially into Yemen, is an established petroleum basin in Saudi Arabia, however, it remains a frontier in Yemen.
#Incorporating technological advances can lead to exploration success and also improved recovery i.e. Qatar’s latest increase in oil production from the mid Cretaceous offshore Al Shaheen giant oil field utilized long horizontal wells to unlock previously recognized potential.<ref name=Vanbuchemetal_2014>van Buchem, F. S. P., N. Svendsen, E. Hoch, R. Pedersen-Tatalovic, and K. Habib, 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/641_aapg-sp1960641.htm Depositional history and petroleum habitat of Qatar], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 641-677.</ref> Low- angle and multi-lateral wells are being successfully applied to increase productivity and recovery from low permeability carbonate reservoirs (e.g. microporous rocks) that are widespread across the Tethyan region and contain vast hydrocarbon accumulations.
#Unconventional resources are gaining increased importance in the Tethyan region. Oman is one of the first countries in the Tethyan region where unconventional resources are being actively pursued.<ref name=Droste_2014 /> Pilot wells into liquid-rich source rocks in the Precambrian and Cretaceous intervals have been drilled and are currently being tested.<ref name=Droste_2014 /> The Permian-Carboniferous Unayzah in Saudi Arabia is being tested for shale-gas. Tight-oil plays in fractured Jurassic and Upper Cretaceous source rocks have been tested in Kuwait<ref name=Alsharhanetal_2014>Alsharhan, A. S., C. J. Strohmenger, F. H. Abdullah, and G. Al Sahlan, 2014, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/memoir106/data/541_aapg-sp1960541.htm Mesozoic Stratigraphic evolution and hydrocarbon habitats of Kuwait], ''in'' L. Marlow, C. Kendall, and L. Yose, eds., Petroleum systems of the Tethyan region: AAPG Memoir 106, p. 541-611.</ref> and the plays could extend into Iraq<ref name=Grabowski_2014 /> and Iran.<ref name=Bordenave_2014 /> In Iraq, heavy oil accumulated in shallow reservoirs and at the surface. Upper Cretaceous also holds potential elsewhere across the margin, for example the Campanian Sirt Shale in Libya<ref name=Hassanandkendall_2014 /> and the Campanian-Maastrichtian Shale in Jordon.<ref name=Lüningandkuss_2014 /> Oil-shale exploration in Jordan is underway and according to a World Bank consultant on oil and energy, “utilised quantities of oil shale in Jordan can generate around 35 Bbo barrels of oil, more than the US oil reserves.”<ref name=Obeidat_2012>Obeidat, O., 5-7-2012, Oil shale is Jordan's saviour-international expert by Omar Obeidat, May 17, 2012, 22:48 Updated: May 17, 2012, 22:48: http://jordantimes.com/oil-shale-is-jordans-saviour----intl-expert.</ref> In Syria, the main Paleozoic, Triassic, Jurassic and upper Cretaceous/Eocene source-rocks which have fed the Palmyrides, Euphrates and NW corner hydrocarbon fields are potential shale oil and gas opportunities.<ref name=Barrieretal_2014 /> In Egypt, unconventional plays are being pursued in the Western Desert in the Abu Gharadig Basin.<ref name=Dolsonetal_2014 /> Silurian source rock is a potential target for shale gas in many regions. The Silurian Tanezzuft Shale Formation in Libya and its equivalents in adjacent countries (including Tunisia and Algeria) is prospective<ref name=Hassanandkendall_2014 /> and the Silurian Dadas Formation in Turkey is being drilled for unconventional resource.<ref name=Derman_2014 /> Candidate source rocks for unconventional resources are ubiquitous across the Tethyan Margin.
#Extension of onshore petroleum systems to the adjacent offshore can lead to exploration opportunities in the Eastern Mediterranean-Levantine Basin and Arabian Peninsula.<ref name=Hassanandkendall_2014 /> <ref name=Dolsonetal_2014 /> <ref name=Marlow_2014 /> <ref name=Gardoshandtannenbaum_2014 /> <ref name=Nader_2014 /> <ref name=Vanbuchemetal_2014 /> <ref name=Alsharhanetal_2014 />
#Historically, structural plays have been the focus of exploration in the Tethyan Region. Expanding exploration to include stratigraphic plays, pre-salt and drilling deeper targets may open up new exploration opportunities in discovered fields.
==See also==
==See also==