Changes

The Permian-Triassic boundary was characterized at a global scale by low sea level, reflected by widespread continental or shallow marine facies. The beginning of Triassic time was characterized by a sea-level rise that can be traced worldwide.

The Permian-Triassic boundary was characterized at a global scale by low sea level, reflected by widespread continental or shallow marine facies. The beginning of Triassic time was characterized by a sea-level rise that can be traced worldwide.

The end Permian crisis is generally considered the most dramatic extinction of the last 600 million years<ref name=Erwin_2006>Erwin, D. H., 2006, Extinction: How life on Earth nearly ended 250 million years ago: Princeton University Press, 296 p.</ref> and led to the extinction of 75–96% of species. Some of the invoked mechanisms included rapid sea-level change and/or anoxia or euxinia; <ref name=Wignallandtwitchett_2002>Wignall, P. B., and Twitchett, R. J., 2002, Permian-Triassic sedimentology of Jameson Land, East Greenland: Incised submarine channels in an anoxic basin: Journal of the Geological Society, v. 159, p. 691–703.</ref> <ref name=Haysetal_2007>Hays, L. E., Beatty, T., Henderson, C. M., Love, G. D., and Summons, R. E., 2007, Evidence for photic zone euxinia through the end-Permian mass extinction in the Panthalassic Ocean (Peace River Basin, Western Canada): Palaeoworld, v. 16, p. 39–50.</ref> extraterrestrial impact;<ref name=Beckeretal_2001>Becker, L., Poreda, R. J., Hunt, A. G., Bunch, T. E., and Rampino, M., 2001, Impact event at the Permo-Triassic boundary: Evidence from extraterrestrial noble gases in Fullerenes: Science, v. 291, p. 1530–1533.</ref> enormous volcanic eruptions and/or an extreme global warming;<ref name=Kidderandworsley_2004>Kidder, D. L., and Worsley, T. R., 2004, Causes and consequences of extreme Permo-Triassic warming to globally equable climate and relation to the Permo-Triassic extinction and recovery: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 203, p. 207–237.</ref> <ref name=Svensenetal_2008>Svensen, H., Planke, S., Polozov, A.,G., Schimdbauer, N., Corfu, F., Podladchikov. Y. Y., and Jamtveit, B., 2008, Siberian gas venting and the end-Permian environmental crisis: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 277, p. 490–500.</ref> <ref name=Reichowetal_2009>Reichow, M. K. et al., 2009, The timing and extent of the eruption of the Siberian Traps large igneous province: Implications for the end-Permian environmental crisis: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 277, no. 1-2, p. 9–20.</ref>); or ozone layer collapse.<ref name=Beerlingetal_2007>Beerling, D. J., Harfoot, M., Lomax, B., and Pyle, J. A., 2007, The stability of the stratospheric ozone layer during the end-Permian eruption of the Siberian traps: Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society, Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, v. 365, p. 1843–1866.</ref> The pattern of the latest Permian extinction evaluated statistically<ref name=Jinetal_2000>Jin, Y. G., Wang, Y., Wang, W., Shang, Q. H., Cao, C. Q., and Erwin, D. H., 2000, Pattern of marine mass extinction near the Permo-Triassic boundary in South China: Science, v. 289, p. 432–436.</ref> <ref name=Shenetal_2006>Shen, S. Z., Cao, C. Q., Henderson, C. M., Wang, X. D., Shi, G. R., Wang, Y., and Wang, W., 2006, End-Permian mass extinction pattern in the northern peri-Gondwanan region: Palaeoworld, v. 15, p. 3–30.</ref> <ref name=Grovesetal_2007>Groves, J. R., Rettori, R., Payne, J. L., Boyce, M. D., and Altiner D., 2007, End-Permian mass extinction of Lagenide foraminifers in the southern Alps (northern Italy): Journal of Paleontology, v. 81, p. 415–434.</ref> <ref name=Angiolinietal_2010>Angiolini, L., Checconi, A., Rettori, R., and Gaetani, M., 2010, The latest Permian mass extinction in the Alborz Mountains (North Iran). In press in Geological Journal.</ref> indicates that the extinction was a sudden event occurring during a sea-level rise. The evidence that the extinction was abrupt in different latest Permian paleogeographic settings is consistent with scenarios in which mass extinction resulted from climatic and environmental deterioration triggered by the Siberian Traps volcanism, which also increased greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere and thus global warming and ozone depletion. This is also supported by the pronounced negative &delta;13C excursion recorded worldwide near the latest Permian extinction event (e.g., Baud et al.,<ref name=Baudetal_1989>Baud, A., Magaritz, M., and Holser, W. T., 1989, Permian-Triassic of the Tethys: Carbon isotopes studies: Geologische Rundschau, v. 78, no. 2, p. 649–677.</ref> Retallack and Krull,<ref name=Retallackandkrull_2006>Retallack, G. J., and Krull, E. S., 2006, Carbon isotopic evidence for terminal Permian methane outbursts and their role in extinctions of animal, plants, coral reefs, and peat swamps, in Wetlands through time: S. F. Greb and W. A. Di Michele, eds., GSA Special Paper, v. 399, p. 249–268.</ref> Horacek et al.<ref name=Horaceketal_2007>Horacek, M., Richoz, S., Brandner, R., Krystyn, L., and Spotl, C., 2007, Evidence for recurrent changes in Lower Triassic oceanic circulation of the Tethys: The &delta;13C record from marine sections in Iran: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 252, p. 255–369.</ref>).

The end Permian crisis is generally considered the most dramatic extinction of the last 600 million years<ref name=Erwin_2006>Erwin, D. H., 2006, Extinction: How life on Earth nearly ended 250 million years ago: Princeton University Press, 296 p.</ref> and led to the extinction of 75–96% of species. Some of the invoked mechanisms included rapid sea-level change and/or anoxia or euxinia; <ref name=Wignallandtwitchett_2002>Wignall, P. B., and Twitchett, R. J., 2002, Permian-Triassic sedimentology of Jameson Land, East Greenland: Incised submarine channels in an anoxic basin: Journal of the Geological Society, v. 159, p. 691–703.</ref> <ref name=Haysetal_2007>Hays, L. E., Beatty, T., Henderson, C. M., Love, G. D., and Summons, R. E., 2007, Evidence for photic zone euxinia through the end-Permian mass extinction in the Panthalassic Ocean (Peace River Basin, Western Canada): Palaeoworld, v. 16, p. 39–50.</ref> extraterrestrial impact;<ref name=Beckeretal_2001>Becker, L., Poreda, R. J., Hunt, A. G., Bunch, T. E., and Rampino, M., 2001, Impact event at the Permo-Triassic boundary: Evidence from extraterrestrial noble gases in Fullerenes: Science, v. 291, p. 1530–1533.</ref> enormous volcanic eruptions and/or an extreme global warming;<ref name=Kidderandworsley_2004>Kidder, D. L., and Worsley, T. R., 2004, Causes and consequences of extreme Permo-Triassic warming to globally equable climate and relation to the Permo-Triassic extinction and recovery: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 203, p. 207–237.</ref> <ref name=Svensenetal_2008>Svensen, H., Planke, S., Polozov, A.,G., Schimdbauer, N., Corfu, F., Podladchikov. Y. Y., and Jamtveit, B., 2008, Siberian gas venting and the end-Permian environmental crisis: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 277, p. 490–500.</ref> <ref name=Reichowetal_2009>Reichow, M. K. et al., 2009, The timing and extent of the eruption of the Siberian Traps large igneous province: Implications for the end-Permian environmental crisis: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 277, no. 1-2, p. 9–20.</ref>); or ozone layer collapse.<ref name=Beerlingetal_2007>Beerling, D. J., Harfoot, M., Lomax, B., and Pyle, J. A., 2007, The stability of the stratospheric ozone layer during the end-Permian eruption of the Siberian traps: Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society, Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, v. 365, p. 1843–1866.</ref> The pattern of the latest Permian extinction evaluated statistically<ref name=Jinetal_2000>Jin, Y. G., Wang, Y., Wang, W., Shang, Q. H., Cao, C. Q., and Erwin, D. H., 2000, Pattern of marine mass extinction near the Permo-Triassic boundary in South China: Science, v. 289, p. 432–436.</ref> <ref name=Shenetal_2006>Shen, S. Z., Cao, C. Q., Henderson, C. M., Wang, X. D., Shi, G. R., Wang, Y., and Wang, W., 2006, End-Permian mass extinction pattern in the northern peri-Gondwanan region: Palaeoworld, v. 15, p. 3–30.</ref> <ref name=Grovesetal_2007>Groves, J. R., Rettori, R., Payne, J. L., Boyce, M. D., and Altiner D., 2007, End-Permian mass extinction of Lagenide foraminifers in the southern Alps (northern Italy): Journal of Paleontology, v. 81, p. 415–434.</ref> <ref name=Angiolinietal_2010>Angiolini, L., Checconi, A., Rettori, R., and Gaetani, M., 2010, The latest Permian mass extinction in the Alborz Mountains (North Iran). In press in Geological Journal.</ref> indicates that the extinction was a sudden event occurring during a sea-level rise. The evidence that the extinction was abrupt in different latest Permian paleogeographic settings is consistent with scenarios in which mass extinction resulted from climatic and environmental deterioration triggered by the Siberian Traps volcanism, which also increased greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere and thus global warming and ozone depletion. This is also supported by the pronounced negative &delta;13C excursion recorded worldwide near the latest Permian extinction event.<ref name=Baudetal_1989>Baud, A., Magaritz, M., and Holser, W. T., 1989, Permian-Triassic of the Tethys: Carbon isotopes studies: Geologische Rundschau, v. 78, no. 2, p. 649–677.</ref> <ref name=Retallackandkrull_2006>Retallack, G. J., and Krull, E. S., 2006, Carbon isotopic evidence for terminal Permian methane outbursts and their role in extinctions of animal, plants, coral reefs, and peat swamps, in Wetlands through time: S. F. Greb and W. A. Di Michele, eds., GSA Special Paper, v. 399, p. 249–268.</ref> <ref name=Horaceketal_2007>Horacek, M., Richoz, S., Brandner, R., Krystyn, L., and Spotl, C., 2007, Evidence for recurrent changes in Lower Triassic oceanic circulation of the Tethys: The &delta;13C record from marine sections in Iran: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 252, p. 255–369.</ref>

[[file:M106Ch01Fig07.jpg|thumb|300px|{{figure number|7}}Global paleogeography (top) and major depositional settings in the southern margin of the Tethys (below) during Norian time (about 205 Ma).]]

[[file:M106Ch01Fig07.jpg|thumb|300px|{{figure number|7}}Global paleogeography (top) and major depositional settings in the southern margin of the Tethys (below) during Norian time (about 205 Ma).]]

At the end of Cretaceous times the present-day continents were completely defined ([[:file:M106Ch01Fig10.jpg|Figure 10]]). Only the northernmost Atlantic Ocean was not completely opened (rifting was still active between Greenland and Canada). Africa detached from Antarctica and India, which began its northern flight that would eventually lead to the Himalayan orogeny. The Alpine Tethys and related basins, which linked the Central Atlantic Ocean with Neo-Tethys, were in a convergent plate regime. The large and complex puzzle of blocks of Adria, Greece, and Turkey were approaching the southern margin of Eurasia, after the almost complete subduction of the Neo-Tethys Ocean. The collision between these complex assemblages of different microplates would produce the Alpine-Dinaric and Turkish orogenic belts. In the Alpine area the lower plate was represented by Eurasia, whereas east of the Alps Laurasia represented the upper plate. This change can be ascribed to the different age and origin of the subducting oceanic crust (Alpine Tethys in the Alps, Neo-Tethys in the east). The possible occurrence of minor oceanic basins (Vardar, Pindos, and Lycian oceans<ref name=Stampfliandborel_2002 />) north of the Mesogea Ocean between the Alpine Tethys and Neo-Tethys accounted for the presence of multiple verging subduction zones. To the north of the subduction-collision belt it was still possible to recognize the occurrence of backarc basins, from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea. The progressive closure of the Neo-Tethys also affected the evolution of the passive margin of Arabia, where the Peri-Arabian Massif high delivered sediments both northward (toward the Neo-Tethys) and southward. The origin of this high was related to the approach of the lower plate (Arabia) to the southern margin of Laurasia (represented by the Sirjan blocks of central Iran) or, alternatively, to an intra-oceanic subduction zone.<ref name=Stampfliandborel_2002 /> The southern margin of Arabia was probably represented by a transform separating this plate from India. South of the Peri-Arabian Massif, on the Arabian plate, sedimentation was represented by prevailing deep-sea clastics and shallow-water carbonates passing to a large coastal plain with deposition of alluvial sediments. Extensional basins with deep-sea carbonates (Sirt Basin) developed along the northern passive margin of Africa and into the Sirt gulf. Rift basins (filled by continental clastic deposits) were also present across the interior of central-eastern Africa to the south.

At the end of Cretaceous times the present-day continents were completely defined ([[:file:M106Ch01Fig10.jpg|Figure 10]]). Only the northernmost Atlantic Ocean was not completely opened (rifting was still active between Greenland and Canada). Africa detached from Antarctica and India, which began its northern flight that would eventually lead to the Himalayan orogeny. The Alpine Tethys and related basins, which linked the Central Atlantic Ocean with Neo-Tethys, were in a convergent plate regime. The large and complex puzzle of blocks of Adria, Greece, and Turkey were approaching the southern margin of Eurasia, after the almost complete subduction of the Neo-Tethys Ocean. The collision between these complex assemblages of different microplates would produce the Alpine-Dinaric and Turkish orogenic belts. In the Alpine area the lower plate was represented by Eurasia, whereas east of the Alps Laurasia represented the upper plate. This change can be ascribed to the different age and origin of the subducting oceanic crust (Alpine Tethys in the Alps, Neo-Tethys in the east). The possible occurrence of minor oceanic basins (Vardar, Pindos, and Lycian oceans<ref name=Stampfliandborel_2002 />) north of the Mesogea Ocean between the Alpine Tethys and Neo-Tethys accounted for the presence of multiple verging subduction zones. To the north of the subduction-collision belt it was still possible to recognize the occurrence of backarc basins, from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea. The progressive closure of the Neo-Tethys also affected the evolution of the passive margin of Arabia, where the Peri-Arabian Massif high delivered sediments both northward (toward the Neo-Tethys) and southward. The origin of this high was related to the approach of the lower plate (Arabia) to the southern margin of Laurasia (represented by the Sirjan blocks of central Iran) or, alternatively, to an intra-oceanic subduction zone.<ref name=Stampfliandborel_2002 /> The southern margin of Arabia was probably represented by a transform separating this plate from India. South of the Peri-Arabian Massif, on the Arabian plate, sedimentation was represented by prevailing deep-sea clastics and shallow-water carbonates passing to a large coastal plain with deposition of alluvial sediments. Extensional basins with deep-sea carbonates (Sirt Basin) developed along the northern passive margin of Africa and into the Sirt gulf. Rift basins (filled by continental clastic deposits) were also present across the interior of central-eastern Africa to the south.

End-Cretaceous time recorded the last of the Big Five mass extinctions (e.g., Ward,<ref name=Ward_1990>Ward, P. D., 1990, The Cretaceous/Tertiary extinctions in the marine realm: A 1990 perspective: Special Paper of the GSA v. 247, p. 425–432.</ref> Bambach et al.<ref name=Bambachetal_2004>Bambach, R. K., Knoll, A. H., and Wang, S. C., 2004, Origination, extinction, and mass depletions of marine diversity: Paleobiology, v. 30, p. 522–542.</ref>), so drastic and so close in time to leave a biogeographic imprint even on modern biota.<ref name=Krugetal_2009>Krug, A. Z., Jablonski, D., and Valentine, J. W., 2009, Signature of the end-Cretaceous mass extinction in the modern biota: Science, v. 323, p. 767–771.</ref> Extinctions happened both in the sea (marine reptile, cephalopods, foraminifers, brachiopods, sharks) and on land (dinosaurs, pterosaurs, some bird groups, marsupial mammals). However, the pattern of this extinction is still disputed, with some groups interpreting gradual decline before the K-Pg boundary, and others catastrophic die-off.<ref name=Ward_1990 /> <ref name=Bentonandlittle_1994>Benton, M. J., and Little, C. T., 1994, Impact in the Caribbean and death of the dinosaurs: Geology Today, v. 13, p. 222–227.</ref> <ref name=Macleodetal_1977>MacLeod, N. et al., 1997, The Cretaceous-Tertiary biotic transition: Journal of the Geological Society, v. 154, p. 265–292.</ref> One of the first proposed causal mechanisms was a major asteroid impact<ref name=Alvarezetal_1980>Alvarez, L. W., Alvarez, W., Asaro, F., and Michel, H. V., 1980, Extraterrestrial cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction: Science, New Series, v. 208, no. 4448, p. 1095–1108.</ref> <ref name=Ocampoetal_2006>Ocampo, A., Vajda, V., and Buffetaut, E., 2006, Unraveling the Cretaceous-Paleogene (KT) catastrophe: Evidence from flora fauna and geology, in C. Cockell, C. Koeberl, and I. Gilmour, eds., Biological Processes Associated with Impact Events: Springer-Verlag Series, p. 197–219.</ref> with proposals of craters, such as Chicxulub Crater, Yucatan.<ref name=Hildebrandetal_1991>Hildebrand, A. R., Penfield, G. T., Kring, D. A., Pilkington, M., Camargo, A., Jacobsen, S. B., and Boynton, W. V., 1991, Chixulub crater: A possible Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary impact crater on the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico: Geology, v. 19, p. 867–871.</ref> Among other suggested triggering mechanisms are global warming and flood basalts (Deccan Traps).<ref name=Courtillot_2005>Courtillot, V., 2005, Evolutionary catastrophes: Cambridge University Press, 173 p.</ref>

End-Cretaceous time recorded the last of the Big Five mass extinctions,<ref name=Ward_1990>Ward, P. D., 1990, The Cretaceous/Tertiary extinctions in the marine realm: A 1990 perspective: Special Paper of the GSA v. 247, p. 425–432.</ref> <ref name=Bambachetal_2004>Bambach, R. K., Knoll, A. H., and Wang, S. C., 2004, Origination, extinction, and mass depletions of marine diversity: Paleobiology, v. 30, p. 522–542.</ref> so drastic and so close in time to leave a biogeographic imprint even on modern biota.<ref name=Krugetal_2009>Krug, A. Z., Jablonski, D., and Valentine, J. W., 2009, Signature of the end-Cretaceous mass extinction in the modern biota: Science, v. 323, p. 767–771.</ref> Extinctions happened both in the sea (marine reptile, cephalopods, foraminifers, brachiopods, sharks) and on land (dinosaurs, pterosaurs, some bird groups, marsupial mammals). However, the pattern of this extinction is still disputed, with some groups interpreting gradual decline before the K-Pg boundary, and others catastrophic die-off.<ref name=Ward_1990 /> <ref name=Bentonandlittle_1994>Benton, M. J., and Little, C. T., 1994, Impact in the Caribbean and death of the dinosaurs: Geology Today, v. 13, p. 222–227.</ref> <ref name=Macleodetal_1977>MacLeod, N. et al., 1997, The Cretaceous-Tertiary biotic transition: Journal of the Geological Society, v. 154, p. 265–292.</ref> One of the first proposed causal mechanisms was a major asteroid impact<ref name=Alvarezetal_1980>Alvarez, L. W., Alvarez, W., Asaro, F., and Michel, H. V., 1980, Extraterrestrial cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction: Science, New Series, v. 208, no. 4448, p. 1095–1108.</ref> <ref name=Ocampoetal_2006>Ocampo, A., Vajda, V., and Buffetaut, E., 2006, Unraveling the Cretaceous-Paleogene (KT) catastrophe: Evidence from flora fauna and geology, in C. Cockell, C. Koeberl, and I. Gilmour, eds., Biological Processes Associated with Impact Events: Springer-Verlag Series, p. 197–219.</ref> with proposals of craters, such as Chicxulub Crater, Yucatan.<ref name=Hildebrandetal_1991>Hildebrand, A. R., Penfield, G. T., Kring, D. A., Pilkington, M., Camargo, A., Jacobsen, S. B., and Boynton, W. V., 1991, Chixulub crater: A possible Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary impact crater on the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico: Geology, v. 19, p. 867–871.</ref> Among other suggested triggering mechanisms are global warming and flood basalts (Deccan Traps).<ref name=Courtillot_2005>Courtillot, V., 2005, Evolutionary catastrophes: Cambridge University Press, 173 p.</ref>

[[file:M106Ch01Fig11.jpg|thumb|300px|{{figure number|11}}Global paleogeography (top) and major depositional settings in the southern margin of the Tethys (below) at the time of the Eocene-Oligocene boundary (about 34 Ma).]]

[[file:M106Ch01Fig11.jpg|thumb|300px|{{figure number|11}}Global paleogeography (top) and major depositional settings in the southern margin of the Tethys (below) at the time of the Eocene-Oligocene boundary (about 34 Ma).]]

===Eocene-Oligocene Boundary (about 34 Ma)===

===Eocene-Oligocene Boundary (about 34 Ma)===

The opening of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans was coupled with the movement of Africa toward the southern boundary of Eurasia and with the gradual closure of the Neo-Tethys Ocean ([[:file:M106Ch01Fig11.jpg|Figure 11]]). The rapid northward flight of India was responsible for the continental collision and the development of the Himalayas, following the complete closure of the eastern Neo-Tethys. The former complex puzzle of microplates that was present north of the Mesogea and south of the Neo-Tethys was sandwiched in the collision zone along an area stretching from the Alps to India (e.g., Dercourt et al.,<ref name=Dercourtetal_1993 /> Barrier and Vrielynck,<ref name=Barrierandvrielynck_2008 /> Moix et al.<ref name=Moixetal_2008>Moix P., Beccaletto L., Kozur H. W., Hochard C., Rosselet F., and Stampfli, G. M., 2008, A new classification of the Turkish terranes and sutures and its implication for the paleotectonic history of the region: Tectonophysics, v. 451, p. 7–39.</ref>). This time-transgressive collision gave rise to the orogenic belts from the Alps to Himalaya, including the Serbo-Pelagonian area, the Pontides, and the Taurus. North of the collision belt, basins such as the Carpathian Flysch Basin, the Black Sea, and the Caspian developed. After the collisions, recorded by this complex assemblage of microplates, the continued compressional regime related to the counterclockwise rotation of Africa produced the development of the northward subduction of the Mesogea Ocean (evolving into the Eastern Mediterranean Basin) below the newly accreted terranes on the southern border of Eurasia. The Peri-Arabian Massif was approaching Laurasia, which initiated development of the Zagros deformation front.<ref name=Barrierandvrielynck_2008 /> The emerged area of the north-eastern side of the Arabian plate can be interpreted as the peripheral bulge of the lower plate. The docking of Arabia to Eurasia led to partial separation between the Indian Ocean to the east and the Eastern Mediterranean Basin to the west. The Arabian plate was significantly uplifted, so that the former shelf area was almost entirely exposed. Sedimentation (shallow marine carbonate passing to deep-water clastics, Kirkuk Basin) was reduced to a narrow belt along the future Mesopotamia and Persian Gulf. Northern Africa was still characterized by a passive margin facing north toward the Eastern Mediterranean Basin. Deep marine clastics were deposited in the Sirt Gulf, whereas continental deposits accumulated in present-day Egypt, Libya, and Sudan. Close to the time of the Eocene-Oligocene boundary, intense magmatic activity was recorded in the Afar area (Afar Traps). Volcanics were also deposited along the western margin of the Arabian Plate, where a rift valley, in which alluvial-lacustrine sediments were deposited, marked the beginning of the opening of the future Red Sea. A complex network of rift basins developed along the future Aden Gulf, and volcanic activity was recorded within the orogenic belts of southern Eurasia (mainly Lut Block, Central Iran, and Armenia<ref name=Barrierandvrielynck_2008 />).

The opening of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans was coupled with the movement of Africa toward the southern boundary of Eurasia and with the gradual closure of the Neo-Tethys Ocean ([[:file:M106Ch01Fig11.jpg|Figure 11]]). The rapid northward flight of India was responsible for the continental collision and the development of the Himalayas, following the complete closure of the eastern Neo-Tethys. The former complex puzzle of microplates that was present north of the Mesogea and south of the Neo-Tethys was sandwiched in the collision zone along an area stretching from the Alps to India.<ref name=Dercourtetal_1993 /> <ref name=Barrierandvrielynck_2008 /> <ref name=Moixetal_2008>Moix P., Beccaletto L., Kozur H. W., Hochard C., Rosselet F., and Stampfli, G. M., 2008, A new classification of the Turkish terranes and sutures and its implication for the paleotectonic history of the region: Tectonophysics, v. 451, p. 7–39.</ref> This time-transgressive collision gave rise to the orogenic belts from the Alps to Himalaya, including the Serbo-Pelagonian area, the Pontides, and the Taurus. North of the collision belt, basins such as the Carpathian Flysch Basin, the Black Sea, and the Caspian developed. After the collisions, recorded by this complex assemblage of microplates, the continued compressional regime related to the counterclockwise rotation of Africa produced the development of the northward subduction of the Mesogea Ocean (evolving into the Eastern Mediterranean Basin) below the newly accreted terranes on the southern border of Eurasia. The Peri-Arabian Massif was approaching Laurasia, which initiated development of the Zagros deformation front.<ref name=Barrierandvrielynck_2008 /> The emerged area of the north-eastern side of the Arabian plate can be interpreted as the peripheral bulge of the lower plate. The docking of Arabia to Eurasia led to partial separation between the Indian Ocean to the east and the Eastern Mediterranean Basin to the west. The Arabian plate was significantly uplifted, so that the former shelf area was almost entirely exposed. Sedimentation (shallow marine carbonate passing to deep-water clastics, Kirkuk Basin) was reduced to a narrow belt along the future Mesopotamia and Persian Gulf. Northern Africa was still characterized by a passive margin facing north toward the Eastern Mediterranean Basin. Deep marine clastics were deposited in the Sirt Gulf, whereas continental deposits accumulated in present-day Egypt, Libya, and Sudan. Close to the time of the Eocene-Oligocene boundary, intense magmatic activity was recorded in the Afar area (Afar Traps). Volcanics were also deposited along the western margin of the Arabian Plate, where a rift valley, in which alluvial-lacustrine sediments were deposited, marked the beginning of the opening of the future Red Sea. A complex network of rift basins developed along the future Aden Gulf, and volcanic activity was recorded within the orogenic belts of southern Eurasia (mainly Lut Block, Central Iran, and Armenia<ref name=Barrierandvrielynck_2008 />).

==Paleogeography and petroleum plays==

==Paleogeography and petroleum plays==