Changes

==Importance of hydraulic fracturing==

==Importance of hydraulic fracturing==

High pore pressure has fractured the top seal and lost hydrocarbons in several basins, including the North Sea<ref name=ch10r70>Skerlec, G., M., 1982, Risking top seals in the Central Graben: Exxon Production Research Company internal report.</ref><ref name=ch10r71>Skerlec, G., M., 1990, SEALS: A short course for risking top seal and fault seal: Franklin, Pennsylvania, SEALS International, 600 p.</ref><ref name=ch10r11>Caillet, G., 1993, The caprock of the Snorre field (Norway): a possible leakage by hydraulic fracturing: Marine and Petroleum Geology, vol. 10, no. 1, p. 42–50., 10., 1016/0264-8172(93)90098-D</ref><ref name=ch10r48>Leith, T., L., Kaarshad, I., Connan, J., Pierron, J., Caillet, G., 1993, Recognition of caprock leakage in the Snorre field, Norwegian North Sea: Marine and Petroleum Geology, vol. 10, no. 1, p. 29–41., 10., 1016/0264-8172(93)90097-C</ref> the Norwegian Sea<ref name=ch10r84>Ungerer, P., Burrus, J., Doligez, B., Chenet, P., Y., Bessis, F., 1990, Basin evaluation by integrated two-dimensional modeling of heat transfer, fluid flow, hydrocarbon generation, and [[migration]]: AAPG Bulletin, vol. 74, no. 3, p. 309–335.</ref> and the Malay basin.<ref name=ch10r66>Scharr, G., 1976, The occurrence of hydrocarbons in overpressured reservoirs of the Baram delta, offshore Sarawak, Malaysia: Fifth Annual Convention, Indonesian Petroleum Association, Proceedings, p. 163–169.</ref> The process is undoubtedly more widespread. Loss of top seal integrity due to natural hydraulic fracturing also appears to control the risk economics and vertical distribution of hydrocarbons in the Gulf Coast.<ref name=ch10r30>Fertl, W., H., Leach, W., G., 1988, Economics of hydrocarbon reserves in overpressured reservoirs below 18,000 feet in south Louisiana: SPE paper 18146, 16 p.</ref><ref name=ch10r46>Leach, W., G., 1993a, Fluid migration, HC concentration in south Louisiana Tertiary sands: Oil & Gas Journal, vol. 91, no. 11, p. 71–74.</ref><ref name=ch10r47>Leach, W., G., 1993b, Maximum hydrocarbon window determination in south Louisiana: Oil & Gas Journal, vol. 91, no. 13, p. 81–84.</ref>

High pore pressure has fractured the top seal and lost hydrocarbons in several basins, including the North Sea<ref name=ch10r70>Skerlec, G., M., 1982, Risking top seals in the Central Graben: Exxon Production Research Company internal report.</ref><ref name=ch10r71>Skerlec, G., M., 1990, SEALS: A short course for risking top seal and fault seal: Franklin, Pennsylvania, SEALS International, 600 p.</ref><ref name=ch10r11>Caillet, G., 1993, The caprock of the Snorre field (Norway): a possible leakage by hydraulic fracturing: Marine and Petroleum Geology, vol. 10, no. 1, p. 42–50., 10., 1016/0264-8172(93)90098-D</ref><ref name=ch10r48>Leith, T., L., Kaarshad, I., Connan, J., Pierron, J., Caillet, G., 1993, Recognition of caprock leakage in the Snorre field, Norwegian North Sea: Marine and Petroleum Geology, vol. 10, no. 1, p. 29–41., 10., 1016/0264-8172(93)90097-C</ref> the Norwegian Sea<ref name=ch10r84>Ungerer, P., Burrus, J., Doligez, B., Chenet, P., Y., Bessis, F., 1990, [http://archives.datapages.com/data/bulletns/1990-91/data/pg/0074/0003/0000/0309.htm Basin evaluation by integrated two-dimensional modeling of heat transfer, fluid flow, hydrocarbon generation, and migration]: AAPG Bulletin, vol. 74, no. 3, p. 309–335.</ref> and the Malay basin.<ref name=ch10r66>Scharr, G., 1976, The occurrence of hydrocarbons in overpressured reservoirs of the Baram delta, offshore Sarawak, Malaysia: Fifth Annual Convention, Indonesian Petroleum Association, Proceedings, p. 163–169.</ref> The process is undoubtedly more widespread. Loss of top seal integrity due to natural hydraulic fracturing also appears to control the risk economics and vertical distribution of hydrocarbons in the Gulf Coast.<ref name=ch10r30>Fertl, W., H., Leach, W., G., 1988, Economics of hydrocarbon reserves in overpressured reservoirs below 18,000 feet in south Louisiana: SPE paper 18146, 16 p.</ref><ref name=ch10r46>Leach, W., G., 1993a, Fluid migration, HC concentration in south Louisiana Tertiary sands: Oil & Gas Journal, vol. 91, no. 11, p. 71–74.</ref><ref name=ch10r47>Leach, W., G., 1993b, Maximum hydrocarbon window determination in south Louisiana: Oil & Gas Journal, vol. 91, no. 13, p. 81–84.</ref>

==Theoretical fracture pressure, p_f==

==Theoretical fracture pressure, p_f==