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Plate tectonics regards the lithosphere broken into plate that are in motion. The plates move relative to another along plate boundaries, sliding upon the underlying asthenosphere (the layer below the lithosphere that is formed of molten rock). The theory of plate tectonics emerged since the 1960s, and until now this theory has successfully explained various geological events, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruption, also explained how the formation of mountains, continents, and oceans.  

Plate tectonics regards the lithosphere broken into plate that are in motion. The plates move relative to another along plate boundaries, sliding upon the underlying asthenosphere (the layer below the lithosphere that is formed of molten rock). The theory of plate tectonics emerged since the 1960s, and until now this theory has successfully explained various geological events, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruption, also explained how the formation of mountains, continents, and oceans.  

[[File:plate_tectonics_map_1_-_ivana.png|framed|center|Plate Tectonics Map <ref>http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Tectonics/Images/schematic_map.gif </ref>]]

[[File:plate_tectonics_map_1_-_ivana.png|framed|center|Plate Tectonics Map <ref>[http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Tectonics/Images/schematic_map.gif Nasa Earth Observatory]</ref>]]

==List of Tectonic Plates <ref> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates </ref>==

==List of Tectonic Plates==

The lithosphere is divided into several tectonic plates intersect with each other. Here are the names of tectonic plates on the Earth:

The lithosphere is divided into several tectonic plates intersect with each other. [[W:List of tectonic plates|Here are Earth's tectonic plates]]:

===Major Plates (≥10 million km²)===

===Major Plates (≥10 million km²)===

==Plate Motion==

==Plate Motion==

The tectonic plates of the earth is not stationary, but moves relative with the speed of 1 to 10 cm per year. The movement of the earth's crustal plates that collide with each other will  form the subduction zone and cause the forces acting both horizontally and vertically, which will form the folds of the mountains, volcanoes track or magmatic, fracturing the rock, and the lines of tectonic earthquakes and the formation of a particular region. Moreover, that will also form various types of deposition of sedimentary basins such as trench, fore arc basin, back arc basin, and basin between the mountains.

The tectonic plates of the earth is not stationary, but moves relative with the speed of 1 to 10 cm per year. The movement of the earth's crustal plates that collide with each other will  form the subduction zone and cause the forces acting both horizontally and vertically, which will form the [[fold]]s of the mountains, volcanoes track or magmatic, fracturing the rock, and the lines of tectonic earthquakes and the formation of a particular region. Moreover, that will also form various types of deposition of sedimentary basins such as trench, fore arc basin, back arc basin, and basin between the mountains.

===Plate Boundaries===

===Plate Boundaries===

====Transform Boundaries====

====Transform Boundaries====

At transform boundaries, one plate slides horizontally past another plate, the plate can occur on a single fault or on a group of parallel faults. Transform boundary is also known as transform fault. The most common type of transform fault occurs along fracture zones and connect two divergent plate boundaries at the crest of the mid-oceanic ridge.

At transform boundaries, one plate slides horizontally past another plate, the plate can occur on a single fault or on a group of parallel faults. Transform boundary is also known as transform fault. The most common type of transform fault occurs along [[fracture]] zones and connect two divergent plate boundaries at the crest of the mid-oceanic ridge.

The example of transform boundaries is the friction between the plates of the Pacific Ocean to the North American mainland plate which resulted the formation of the San Andreas Fault which extends along approximately 1,200 km from San Francisco in the north to the south of Los Angeles in the United States.  

The example of transform boundaries is the friction between the plates of the Pacific Ocean to the North American mainland plate which resulted the formation of the San Andreas Fault which extends along approximately 1,200 km from San Francisco in the north to the south of Los Angeles in the United States.  

===The Cause of Plate Motion===

===The Cause of Plate Motion===

====Mantle Convection====

====Mantle Convection====

The widely accepted opinion regarding the cause of the plates move at this time is because of the convection currents in the mantle. The heat from the core of the Earth is transferred to the surface of the Earth through the mantle. The heat from the core warms up the liquid rock on mantle that closest to the core, causing the liquid rock to expand and rise toward the crust. The cooler liquid rock near the surface sinks back down toward the core. In doing so, a current of liquid rock is set up flowing toward the surface and back down again. This mantle convection is believed the causes the plates movement.

The widely accepted opinion regarding the cause of the plates move at this time is because of the convection currents in the [[mantle]]. The heat from the core of the Earth is transferred to the surface of the Earth through the mantle. The heat from the core warms up the liquid rock on mantle that closest to the core, causing the liquid rock to expand and rise toward the [[crust]]. The cooler liquid rock near the surface sinks back down toward the core. In doing so, a current of liquid rock is set up flowing toward the surface and back down again. This mantle convection is believed the causes the plates movement.

[[File:Mantle_convection_cell.jpg|framed|center|Mantle Convection <ref> http://research.bpcrc.osu.edu/education/rr/plate_tectonics/mantle_convection_cell.gif </ref>]]

[[File:Mantle_convection_cell.jpg|framed|center|Mantle Convection <ref> http://research.bpcrc.osu.edu/education/rr/plate_tectonics/mantle_convection_cell.gif </ref>]]

====Slab Pull====

====Slab Pull====

The other proposal is called slab pull. Cold lithosphere sinking at a steep angle through hot mantle should pull the surface part of the plate away from the ridge crest and then down into mantle as it cools. A subduction plate sinks because it is denser than the surrounding mantle. This density contrast is partly due to the fact that sinking lithosphere is cold. The subduction plate may also increase its density while it sinks, as low-density materials such as water are lost and as plate minerals collapse into denser form during subduction. Slab pull is thought to be at least twice as important as ridge push in moving an oceanic plate away from aridge crest. Slab pull causes rapid plate motion.<ref name=Carlson />

The other proposal is called slab pull. Cold lithosphere sinking at a steep angle through hot [[mantle]] should pull the surface part of the plate away from the ridge crest and then down into mantle as it cools. A subduction plate sinks because it is denser than the surrounding mantle. This density contrast is partly due to the fact that sinking lithosphere is cold. The subduction plate may also increase its density while it sinks, as low-density materials such as water are lost and as plate minerals collapse into denser form during subduction. Slab pull is thought to be at least twice as important as ridge push in moving an oceanic plate away from aridge crest. Slab pull causes rapid plate motion.<ref name=Carlson />

===Continental Drift===

===Continental Drift===

====Stage E====

====Stage E====

Most of the remnant ocean basin has subducted and the two continents are about to collide. Subduction under the edge of a continent has a lot of results. Deep in the subduction zone igneous magma is generated and rises to the surface to form volcanoes, that build into a cordilleran mountain range (e.g. the Cascade mountains of Washington, Oregon, and northern California.) Also, a lot of metamorphism occurs and folding and faulting.

Most of the remnant ocean basin has subducted and the two continents are about to collide. Subduction under the edge of a continent has a lot of results. Deep in the subduction zone [[igneous]] magma is generated and rises to the surface to form volcanoes, that build into a cordilleran mountain range (e.g. the Cascade mountains of Washington, Oregon, and northern California.) Also, a lot of metamorphism occurs and [[fold]]ing and [[fault]]ing.

====Stage F====

====Stage F====

===Basin Formation Method <ref> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_basin </ref> ===

===Basin Formation Method <ref> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_basin </ref> ===

Basins form primarily in convergent, divergent and transform settings. Convergent boundaries create foreland basins through tectonic compression of oceanic and [[continental crust]] during lithospheric flexure. Tectonic extension at divergent boundaries where continental rifting is occurring can create a nascent ocean basin leading to either an ocean or the failure of the rift zone. In tectonic strike-slip settings, accommodation spaces occur as transpresional, transtensional or transrotational basins according to the motion of the plates along the fault zone and the local topography pull-apart basins.

Basins form primarily in convergent, divergent and transform settings. Convergent boundaries create [[foreland basin]]s through tectonic compression of oceanic and [[continental crust]] during lithospheric flexure. Tectonic extension at divergent boundaries where continental rifting is occurring can create a nascent ocean basin leading to either an ocean or the failure of the rift zone. In tectonic strike-slip settings, accommodation spaces occur as transpresional, transtensional or transrotational basins according to the motion of the plates along the fault zone and the local topography pull-apart basins.

====Lithospheric Stretching====

====Lithospheric Stretching====

If a load is placed on the lithosphere, it will tend to flex in the manner of an elastic plate. The magnitude of the lithospheric flexure is a function of the imposed load and the flexural rigidity of the lithosphere, and the wavelength of flexure is a function of flexural rigidity alone. Flexural rigidity is in itself, a function of the lithospheric mineral composition, thermal regime, and effective elastic thickness. The nature of the load is varied. For instance, the Hawaiian Islands chain of volcanic edifices has sufficient mass to cause deflection in the lithosphere.

If a load is placed on the lithosphere, it will tend to flex in the manner of an elastic plate. The magnitude of the lithospheric flexure is a function of the imposed load and the flexural rigidity of the lithosphere, and the wavelength of flexure is a function of flexural rigidity alone. Flexural rigidity is in itself, a function of the lithospheric mineral composition, thermal regime, and effective elastic thickness. The nature of the load is varied. For instance, the Hawaiian Islands chain of volcanic edifices has sufficient mass to cause deflection in the lithosphere.

The obduction of one tectonic plate onto another also causes a load and often results in the creation of a foreland basin, such as the Po basin next to the Alps in Italy, the Molasse Basin next to the Alps in Germany, or the Ebro basin next to the Pyrenees in Spain.

The obduction of one tectonic plate onto another also causes a load and often results in the creation of a [[foreland basin]], such as the Po basin next to the Alps in Italy, the Molasse Basin next to the Alps in Germany, or the Ebro basin next to the Pyrenees in Spain.

====Strike-Slip deformation====

====Strike-Slip deformation====

Deformation of the lithosphere in the plane of the earth occurs as a result of near horizontal maximum and minimum principal stresses. The resulting zones of subsidence are known as strike-slip or pull apart basins. Basins formed through strike-slip action occur where a vertical fault plane curves. When the curve in the fault plane moves apart, a region of transtension results, creating a basin. Another term for a transtensional basin is a rhombochasm. A classic rhombochasm is illustrated by the Dead Sea rift, where northward movement of the Arabian Plate relative to the Anatolian Plate has caused a rhombochasm.

[[Deformation]] of the lithosphere in the plane of the earth occurs as a result of near horizontal maximum and minimum principal stresses. The resulting zones of subsidence are known as strike-slip or pull apart basins. Basins formed through strike-slip action occur where a vertical fault plane curves. When the curve in the fault plane moves apart, a region of transtension results, creating a basin. Another term for a transtensional basin is a rhombochasm. A classic rhombochasm is illustrated by the Dead Sea rift, where northward movement of the Arabian Plate relative to the Anatolian Plate has caused a rhombochasm.

The opposite effect is that of transpression, where converging movement of a curved fault plane causes collision of the opposing sides of the fault. An example is the San Bernardino Mountains north of Los Angeles, which result from convergence along a curve in the San Andreas Fault system. The Northridge earthquake was caused by vertical movement along local thrust and reverse faults bunching up against the bend in the otherwise strike-slip fault environment. In Nigeria, the dominant type of [[basement]] rock intersected by wells drilled for hydrocarbons, limestone, or water is granite. The three sedimentary basins in Nigeria are underlain by continental crust except in the Niger delta, where the basement rock is interpreted to be oceanic crust. Most of the wells that penetrated the basement are in the Eastern Dahomey embayment of western Nigeria. A maximum thickness of about 12,000 m of sedimentary rocks is attained in the offshore western Niger delta, but maximum thicknesses of sedimentary rocks are about 2,000 m in the Chad basin and only 500 m in the Sokoto embayment.

The opposite effect is that of transpression, where converging movement of a curved fault plane causes collision of the opposing sides of the fault. An example is the San Bernardino Mountains north of Los Angeles, which result from convergence along a curve in the San Andreas Fault system. The Northridge earthquake was caused by vertical movement along local thrust and reverse faults bunching up against the bend in the otherwise strike-slip fault environment. In Nigeria, the dominant type of [[basement]] rock intersected by wells drilled for hydrocarbons, limestone, or water is granite. The three sedimentary basins in Nigeria are underlain by continental crust except in the Niger delta, where the basement rock is interpreted to be oceanic crust. Most of the wells that penetrated the basement are in the Eastern Dahomey embayment of western Nigeria. A maximum thickness of about 12,000 m of sedimentary rocks is attained in the offshore western Niger delta, but maximum thicknesses of sedimentary rocks are about 2000 m in the Chad basin and only 500 m in the Sokoto embayment.

==References==

==References==

==Other sources==

==Other sources==

* Christian Vérard, Cyril Hochard, Peter O. Baumgartner, Gérard M. Stampfli. 2015. ''Geodynamic evolution of the Earth over the Phanerozoic: Plate tectonic activity and palaeoclimatic indicators''. Journal of Palaeogeography, 4(2): 167-188.

* Assaad, F. A., 2009, [http://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/9783540788362-c1.pdf?SGWID=0-0-45-615210-p173825306 Field Methods for Petroleum Geologists 11]: Berlin, Springer-Verlag.

* http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/vageol/vahist/plates.html

* http://file.upi.edu/Direktori/FPIPS/JUR._PEND._GEOGRAFI/195901011989011-YAKUB_MALIK/HANDOUT_TEKTONIK_LEMPENG.pdf

* http://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/9783540788362-c1.pdf?SGWID=0-0-45-615210-p173825306

* Vérard, C., C. Hochard, P. O. Baumgartner, and G. M. Stampfli, 2015, Geodynamic evolution of the Earth over the Phanerozoic: Plate tectonic activity and palaeoclimatic indicators: Journal of Palaeogeography, v. 4, no. 2, p. 167–188.

* http://www.le.ac.uk/gl/art/gl209/lecture3/lecture3.html

* [http://file.upi.edu/Direktori/FPIPS/JUR._PEND._GEOGRAFI/195901011989011-YAKUB_MALIK/HANDOUT_TEKTONIK_LEMPENG.pdf Ringkasan Materi Tektonik Lempeng Dan Batuan]

* http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/earth-atmospheric-and-planetary-sciences/12-110-sedimentary-geology-spring-2007/lecture-notes/ch11.pdf

* [http://www.le.ac.uk/gl/art/gl209/lecture3/lecture3.html The Wilson Cycle: Rifting and the development of ocean basins: Lecture 3: University of Leicester, Leicester, U.K.]

* [http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/earth-atmospheric-and-planetary-sciences/12-110-sedimentary-geology-spring-2007/lecture-notes/ch11.pdf MIT Lecture Notes]