Basin-centered gas systems: development

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Basin-centered gas systems
Series AAPG Bulletin, November 2002
Author Ben E. Law
Link Web page

The developmental history of a basin-centered gas system (BCGS) may be viewed as four reservoir pressure cycles. As a consequence of the dynamic nature of geologic processes and the response to those processes, the phases discussed here are geologically ephemeral. Figure 1 is a diagrammatic representation showing these pressure phases and the development of direct and indirect BCGSs. Meissner[1] and Law and Dickinson[2] discussed these phase changes for gas accumulations in low-permeability reservoirs.

Figure 1 Schematic diagram showing evolution of direct and indirect basin-centered gas systems. Evolutionary phases are shown along the side of each system.

Phase I

Direct and indirect systems

During the early burial and thermal histories of direct and indirect systems, the reservoirs are, for the most part, normally pressured, and the fluid phase in the pore system is 100% water saturated (Figure 1). Compaction of framework grains during this phase is an important process. The defining processes for each system, however, are different. For direct systems, phase I terminates with the initiation of thermal gas generation, whereas the termination of phase I in indirect systems occurs with the initiation of thermal cracking of oil to gas. Reservoir quality in indirect systems during phase I is assumed to be relatively better than reservoir quality in direct systems because buoyant accumulations of oil require better porosity and permeability.

During phase I there may be some cases in which reservoir pressures are overpressured. Law and Spencer[3] suggested that in the early burial stages of a basin-centered gas accumulation (BCGA) sequence, prior to the development of a recognizable BCGA, and in some depositional settings of rapid sedimentation, compaction disequilibrium may have been the initial overpressuring mechanism. In this scenario, the pressuring fluid phase is water. However, as the sequence experiences further burial and hotter temperatures, the compaction disequilibrium pressure mechanism may be replaced by hydrocarbon generation and the development of abnormally high pressures characterized by pore fluids composed of gas and little or no water. A possible example of the transition of pressure mechanisms from compaction disequilibrium to hydrocarbon generation may be present in Miocene and Pliocene rocks in the Bekes basin[4] and the Mako trench (B. E. Law, 2000, unpublished data) of Hungary. In these areas, Miocene and Pliocene rocks are overpressured and possess many of the distinguishing characteristics of a BCGA. The overpressures in Miocene rocks appear to be caused by hydrocarbon generation, whereas overlying, overpressured Pliocene rocks appear to be in a transitional pressure phase between compaction disequilibrium and hydrocarbon generation. In this case, a knowledge of pore fluid composition (mainly gas or mainly water) in the Pliocene sequence would offer considerable insight in resolving the problem.

Phase II

Direct systems

Direct systems require gas-prone source rocks and low-permeability reservoirs in close proximity to each other. As the source and reservoir rocks undergo further burial and exposure to increasing temperatures, the source rocks begin to generate gas (Figure 1). Concomitant with increased gas generation, expulsion, and migration, gas begins to enter adjacent, water-wet sandstones. Because these sandstones have low permeability, the rate at which gas is generated and accumulated in reservoirs is greater than the rate at which gas is lost. Eventually, as newly generated gas accumulates in the pore system, the capillary pressure of the water-wet pores is exceeded, and free, mobile water is expelled from the pore system, resulting in the development of an overpressured, gas-saturated reservoir with little or no free water. Examples of BCGA systems exhibiting this overpressured phase include the Greater Green River,[5] Wind River,[6] Big Horn,[7] and Piceance basins[8] in the Rocky Mountain region of the United States and the Taranaki Basin in New Zealand (B. E. Law, 2000, unpublished data) (Table 1).

Table 1 Selected areas or basins containing known or suspected basin-centered gas systems
Area Level of certainty Age Type of system Reference
NORTH AMERICA
Colville basin, Alaska High Cretaceous Direct ? Popov et al.[9]
Central Alaska basins Low/Moderate ? ? Popov et al.[9]
Cook Inlet, Alaska Low pre-Tertiary ? Popov et al.[9]
Norton Basin, Alaska High Eocene/Paleocene Direct Smith[10]
Alberta basin, Canada High Cretaceous Direct Masters[11] [12]
Charlotte-Georgia Basin, Canada Low/Moderate Tertiary/Cretaceous Direct ?
Willamette-Puget Sound Trough, Washington and Oregon Moderate/High Tertiary Direct ? Law,[13] Popov et al.[9]
Columbia basin, Washington High Tertiary Direct Law et al.,[14] Law[13]
Modoc Plateau, California Low/Moderate Cretaceous Direct ? Popov et al.[9]
Sacramento/San Joaquin basins, California Low/Moderate Cretaceous ? Popov et al.[9]
Great Basin, Nevada Low Tertiary ? ? Popov et al.[9]
Snake River Plain, Idaho Low/Moderate Tertiary ? ? Popov et al.[9]
Big Horn basin, Wyoming High Lower Tertiary/Cretaceous Direct Johnson et al.[7]
Wind River basn, Wyoming High Cretaceous Direct Johnson et al.[6]
Greater Green River basin, Wyoming High Lower Tertiary/Cretaceous Direct Law et al.,[15] Law et al.,[16] McPeek,[17] Law,[5] Law et al.[18]
Hanna basin, Wyoming High Cretaceous Direct Popov et al.,[9] Wilson et al.[19]
Powder River basin, Wyoming High Cretaceous ? Surdam et al.,[20] Maucione et al.[21]
Wasatch Plateau, Utah Moderate/High Cretaceous Direct Popov et al.[9]
Uinta basin, Utah High Lower Tertiary/Cretaceous Direct Fouch et al.,[22] Fouch and Schmoker,[23] Popov et al.[9]
Piceance basin, Colorado High Cretaceous Direct Johnson et al.,[8] Spencer,[24] Spencer[25]
South Park basin, Colorado Moderate/High Cretaceous Direct/Indirect Popov et al.[9]
Raton basin, New Mexico and Colorado High Tertiary/Cretaceous Direct/Indirect Johnson and Finn,[26] Popov et al.[9]
Denver basin, Colorado High Cretaceous Direct/Indirect Higley et al.,[27] Popov et al.[9]
San Juan basin, New Mexico and Colorado High Cretaceous Direct Silver,[28] Masters,[11] Huffman[29]
Permian basin, New Mexico High Permian Indirect/Direct Broadhead,[30] Popov et al.[9]
Albuquerque basin, New Mexico Moderate/High Cretaceous Direct Johnson et al.[31] Popov et al.[9]
Anadarko basin, Oklahoma High Pennsylvanian Indirect Al-Shaieb et al.,[32] Popov et al.[9]
Midcontinent Rift, Minnesota and Iowa Low/Moderate Precambrian Indirect/Direct Popov et al.[9]
Arkoma basin, Arkansas and Oklahoma High Pennsylvanian Direct Meckel et al.,[33] Popov et al.[9]
Gulf Coast, United States High Cretaceous Indirect Popov et al.[9]
East Texas basin, Texas High Jurassic Indirect ? Montgomery and Karlewiz,[34] Emme and Stancil[35]
Black Warrior basin, Alabama and Mississippi Moderate/High Pennsylvanian Direct Popov et al.[9]
Michigan basin, Michigan Low/Moderate Ordovician ? Popov et al.[9]
Appalachian basin, eastern United States High Silurian/Devonian Indirect Davis,[36] Law and Spencer,[37] Law and Spencer,[3] Popov et al.,[9] Ryder and Zagorski[38]
SOUTH AMERICA
Chaco basin, Bolivia Moderate Devonian ? Williams et al.[39]
Neuquen basin, Argentina High ? ? Fernandez-Sevesco and Surdam[40]
EUROPE
Timan-Pechora basin, Russa High Permian Direct Law et al.[41]
Dnieper-Donets basin, Ukraine High Carboniferous Direct Law et al.[42]
West Netherlands basin, Netherlands Indeterminate ? ?
Vlieland basin, Netherlands Indeterminate ? ?
Polish basin, Poland Indeterminate ? ?
Upper Silesian basin, Poland Indeterminate ? ?
Bekes basin, Hungary Moderate/High Miocene ? Spencer et al.[4]
German basin, Germany Indeterminate ? ?
Ruhr basin, Germany Indeterminate ? ?
Thuringian basin, Germany Indeterminate ? ?
Subhercynian basin, Germany Indeterminate ? ?
Lower Saxony basin, Germany Indeterminate ? ?
Saar-Nahe basin, Germany and France Indeterminate ? ?
Rhine graben, Germany and France Indeterminate ? ?
Nord-pas-de-Calais basin, France Indeterminate ? ?
Lorraine basin, France Indeterminate ? ?
Bresse basin, France Indeterminate ? ?
Southeast basin, France Indeterminate ? ?
Vienna basin, Austria and Slovakia Indeterminate ? ?
Alpine Foreland basin, Switzerland High Permian/Carboniferous Direct Schegg et al.[43]
ASIA-PACIFIC
Sichuan basin, China High Permian/Triassic Direct ? Da-jun and Yun-ho,[44] Ryder et al.[45]
Ordos Basin, China High Permian ?
Jungar basin, China High Permian ? Zha et al.[46]
Taranaki Basin, New Zealand High Eocene Direct
Gippsland Basin, Australia Moderate Lower Tertiary/Cretaceous Direct Stainforth[47]
Barrow Subbasin, Australia High Jurassic ? He and Middleton[48]
Perth basin (onshore), Australia Moderate Jurassic ? Crostella[49]
Carnarvon Basin, Australia Low/Moderate Permian ? Crostella[50]
Khorat Plateau basin, Thailand-Laos Low Triassic/Jurassic ? Smith and Stokes[51]
SOUTH ASIA
Vendian basin, India Low/Moderate Precambrian ?
Suliaman range foreland, Pakistan Low Cretaceous Direct ?
MIDDLE EAST
Risha area, Jordan High Ordovician Indirect Ahlbrandt et al.[52]
AFRICA
Ahnet basin, Algeria High Cambrian/Ordovician Indirect
Benue trough, Nigeria Moderate/High Cretaceous Direct Obaje and Abaa[53]

Indirect systems

In contrast to direct systems, indirect systems require a liquid-prone source rock (Figure 1). Reservoir quality in indirect systems is assumed to have been better than in direct systems. In this case, oil and gas are generated and expelled and migrate to reservoirs where they accumulate in structural and stratigraphic traps as discrete, buoyant accumulations with downdip water contacts. With subsequent burial and exposure to higher temperatures, the accumulated oil undergoes thermal cracking to gas, accompanied by a significant increase of fluid volume and pressures.[54] The level of thermal maturity at which oil is transformed to gas is commonly thought to be about 1.35% vitrinite reflectance (Ro);[55][56] however, some evidence indicates that the transformation may occur at higher levels of thermal maturity. Alternatively, gas derived from thermally cracked oil within a source rock may subsequently be expelled and migrate to low-permeability reservoirs.[57][58][59][56] Under these conditions of changing fluid volume and pressure, the capillary pressure of the water-wet pore system is exceeded, and, like pore pressures in direct systems, the high pressures forcibly expel mobile, free water from the pore system, replacing water with gas, and the development of an overpressured BCGA ensues. An additionally important aspect of this phase is the necessity for the presence of an effective lithologic top seal in reservoirs formerly occupied by discrete oil accumulations.

Phase III

At the point where direct and indirect systems are in the overpressured phase (phase II), the processes involved in the transition to phase III are identical for both systems (Figure 1). Phase III occurs when the overpressured phase of direct and indirect systems evolves into underpressured conditions. Both systems, subsequent to the phase II history of overpressure, may experience a period of uplift and erosional unloading and/or heat flow perturbations. During, or subsequent to, these burial and thermal history disruptions, some gas is lost from the accumulation, and the overpressured gas reservoirs are subjected to reduced temperatures. The loss of gas, in conjunction with reduced temperatures, effectively results in the development of an underpressured BCGA.[1][2] During this pressure transition, Meissner[60] emphasized the importance of gas loss over temperature reduction as the dominant process.

Conjectural evidence concerning the integrity of seals in direct vs. indirect systems implies that gas is lost more easily from direct BCGAs than from indirect BCGAs. Johnson et al.[61] have shown that gas in conventionally trapped accumulations in several Rocky Mountain basins originated from BCGAs, demonstrating that loss of gas through relative permeability, capillary pressure seals does occur. Examples of underpressured, phase III direct systems include Cretaceous rocks in the San Juan, Raton, and Denver basins, and examples of underpressured, phase III indirect systems include Lower Silurian reservoirs in the Appalachian basin, Ordovician reservoirs in the Risha area of eastern Jordan, and Cambrian and Ordovician reservoirs in the Ahnet basin of Algeria (Table 1).

Phase IV

Phase IV is theoretical and may be more applicable to direct systems because of the perceived, relatively better quality of seals in indirect systems than seals in direct systems. During phase IV, continued loss of gas from capillary pressure seals in BCGAs is accompanied by water slowly reentering underpressured, gas-bearing reservoirs. Under these conditions, Meissner[1] and Law and Dickinson[2] hypothesized that the underpressured, gas-bearing reservoirs would eventually evolve into normally pressured, water-bearing reservoirs, thus completing the pressure cycle.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Meissner, F. Fm 1978, Patterns of source-rock maturity in non-marine source rocks of some typical western interior basins in non-marine Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous source rocks and the occurrence of oil and gas in the west central U.S.:Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists Continuing Education Notes, unpaginated.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Law, B. E., and W. W. Dickinson, 1985, A conceptual model for the origin of abnormally pressured gas accumulations in low-permeability reservoirs: AAPG Bulletin, v. 69, p. 1295-1304.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Law, B. E., and C. W. Spencer, 1998, Abnormal pressure in hydrocarbon environments, in B. E. Law, G. F. Ulmishek, and V. I. Slavin, eds., Abnormal pressures in hydrocarbon environments: AAPG Memoir 70, p. 1-11.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Spencer, C. W., A. Szalay, and E. Tatar, 1994, Abnormal pressure and hydrocarbon migration in the Bekes basin, in P. G. Teleki, R. E. Mattick, and J. Kokai, eds., Basin analysis in petroleum exploration: Dordrecht Netherlands, Kluwer Academic Publishers, p. 201-219.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Law, B. E., 1984, Relationships of source rocks, thermal maturity, and overpressuring to gas generation and occurrence in low-permeability Upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary rocks, Greater Green River basin, Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah, in J. Woodward, F. F. Meissner, and J. L. Clayton, eds., Hydrocarbon source rocks of the greater Rocky Mountain region: Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists Guidebook, P. 469-490.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Johnson, R. C., T. M. Finn, R. A. Crovelli, and R. H. Balay, 1996, An assessment of in-place gas resources in low-permeability Upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary sandstone reservoirs, Wind River basin, Wyoming: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 96-264, 67 p.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Johnson, R. C., R. A. Crovelli, B. G. Lowell, and T. M. Finn, 1999, An assessment of in-place gas resources in the low-permeability basin-centered gas accumulation of the Big Horn basin, Wyoming and Montana: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 99-315A, 123 p.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Johnson, R. C., R. A. Crovelli, C. W. Spencer, and R. F. Mast, 1987, An assessment of gas resources in low-permeability sandstones of the Upper Cretaceous Mesaverde Group, Piceance basin, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 87-357, 165 p.
  9. ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19 9.20 9.21 9.22 Popov, M. A., V. F. Nuccio, T. S. Dyman, T. A. Gognat, R. C. Johnson, J. W. Schmoker, M. S. Wilson, and C. Bartberger, 2001, Basin-centered gas systems of the U.S.:U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 01-135, Version 1.0, 1 CD-ROM.
  10. ↑ Smith, J. T., 1994, Petroleum system logic as an exploration tool in a frontier setting, in L. B. Magoon and W. G. Dow, eds., The petroleum system-from source to trap: AAPG Memoir 60, p. 25-49.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Masters, J. A., 1979, Deep basin gas trap, western Canada: AAPG Bulletin, v. 63, p. 152-181.
  12. ↑ Masters, J. A., ed., 1984, Elmworth-case study of a deep basin gas field: AAPG Memoir 38, 316 p.
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  17. ↑ McPeek, L. A., 1981, Eastern Green River basin-a developing giant gas supply from deep, overpressured Upper Cretaceous sandstones: AAPG Bulletin, v. 65, p. 1078-1098.
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  25. ↑ Spencer, C. W., 1989, Review of characteristics of low-permeability gas reservoirs in western United States: AAPG Bulletin, v. 73, p. 613-629.
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  33. ↑ Meckel, L. D., D. G. Smith, and L. A. Wells, 1992, Ouachita foredeep basins: Regional paleogeography and habitat of hydrocarbons, in R. W. Macqueen and D. A. Leckie, eds., Foreland basins and fold belts: AAPG Memoir 55, p. 427-444.
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  52. ↑ Ahlbrandt, T. S., O. A. Okasheh, and M. Lewan, 1997, A Middle East basin center hydrocarbon accumulation in Paleozoic rocks, eastern Jordan, western Iraq, and surrounding areas (abs.): AAPG International Conference and Exhibition, p. A1-A2.
  53. ↑ Obaje, N. G., and S. I. Abaa, 1996, Potential for col-derived gaseous hydrocarbons in the middle Benue Trough of Nigeria: Journal of Petroleum Geology, v. 19, p. 77-94.
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  58. ↑ Garcia-Gonzales, M., D. B. MacGowan, and R. C. Surdam, 1993, Mechanisms of petroleum generation from coal, as evidenced from petrographic and geochemical studies: Examples from Almond Formation coals in the Greater Green River basin, in B. Strook and S. Andrew, eds., Wyoming Geological Association Jubilee Anniversary Field Conference Guidebook, p. 311-323.
  59. ↑ MacGowan, D. B., M. Garcia-Gonzales, D. R. Britton, and R. C. Surdam, 1993, Timing of hydrocarbon generation, organic-inorganic diagenesis, and the formation of abnormally pressured gas compartments in the Cretaceous of the Greater Green River basin: A geochemical model, in B. Strook and S. Andrew, eds., Wyoming Geological Association Jubilee Anniversary Field Conference Guidebook, p. 325-357.
  60. ↑ Meissner, F. F., 2000, Causes of anomalous deep basin fluid pressures in Rocky Mountain basins and their relation to regional gas accumulation, in 2000 basin-centered gas symposium: Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, 11 p.
  61. ↑ Johnson, R. C., D. D. Rice, and T. D. Fouch, 1994, Evidence for gas migration from Cretaceous basin-centered accumulations into lower Tertiary reservoirs in Rocky Mountain basins: Proceedings of the Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists and Colorado Association First Biennial Conference, Natural Gas in the Western United States, 8 p.

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