Basin-centered gas systems: development
The developmental history of a basin-centered gas system (BCGS) may be viewed as four reservoir pressure cycles. As a consequence of the dynamic nature of geologic processes and the response to those processes, the phases discussed here are geologically ephemeral. Figure 1 is a diagrammatic representation showing these pressure phases and the development of direct and indirect BCGSs. Meissner[1] and Law and Dickinson[2] discussed these phase changes for gas accumulations in low-permeability reservoirs.
Phase I
Direct and indirect systems
During the early burial and thermal histories of direct and indirect systems, the reservoirs are, for the most part, normally pressured, and the fluid phase in the pore system is 100% water saturated (Figure 1). Compaction of framework grains during this phase is an important process. The defining processes for each system, however, are different. For direct systems, phase I terminates with the initiation of thermal gas generation, whereas the termination of phase I in indirect systems occurs with the initiation of thermal cracking of oil to gas. Reservoir quality in indirect systems during phase I is assumed to be relatively better than reservoir quality in direct systems because buoyant accumulations of oil require better porosity and permeability.
During phase I there may be some cases in which reservoir pressures are overpressured. Law and Spencer[3] suggested that in the early burial stages of a basin-centered gas accumulation (BCGA) sequence, prior to the development of a recognizable BCGA, and in some depositional settings of rapid sedimentation, compaction disequilibrium may have been the initial overpressuring mechanism. In this scenario, the pressuring fluid phase is water. However, as the sequence experiences further burial and hotter temperatures, the compaction disequilibrium pressure mechanism may be replaced by hydrocarbon generation and the development of abnormally high pressures characterized by pore fluids composed of gas and little or no water. A possible example of the transition of pressure mechanisms from compaction disequilibrium to hydrocarbon generation may be present in Miocene and Pliocene rocks in the Bekes basin[4] and the Mako trench (B. E. Law, 2000, unpublished data) of Hungary. In these areas, Miocene and Pliocene rocks are overpressured and possess many of the distinguishing characteristics of a BCGA. The overpressures in Miocene rocks appear to be caused by hydrocarbon generation, whereas overlying, overpressured Pliocene rocks appear to be in a transitional pressure phase between compaction disequilibrium and hydrocarbon generation. In this case, a knowledge of pore fluid composition (mainly gas or mainly water) in the Pliocene sequence would offer considerable insight in resolving the problem.
Phase II
Direct systems
Direct systems require gas-prone source rocks and low-permeability reservoirs in close proximity to each other. As the source and reservoir rocks undergo further burial and exposure to increasing temperatures, the source rocks begin to generate gas (Figure 1). Concomitant with increased gas generation, expulsion, and migration, gas begins to enter adjacent, water-wet sandstones. Because these sandstones have low permeability, the rate at which gas is generated and accumulated in reservoirs is greater than the rate at which gas is lost. Eventually, as newly generated gas accumulates in the pore system, the capillary pressure of the water-wet pores is exceeded, and free, mobile water is expelled from the pore system, resulting in the development of an overpressured, gas-saturated reservoir with little or no free water. Examples of BCGA systems exhibiting this overpressured phase include the Greater Green River,[5] Wind River,[6] Big Horn,[7] and Piceance basins[8] in the Rocky Mountain region of the United States and the Taranaki Basin in New Zealand (B. E. Law, 2000, unpublished data) (Table 1).
Area | Level of certainty | Age | Type of system | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
NORTH AMERICA
| ||||
Colville basin, Alaska | High | Cretaceous | Direct ? | Popov et al.[9] |
Central Alaska basins | Low/Moderate | ? | ? | Popov et al.[9] |
Cook Inlet, Alaska | Low | pre-Tertiary | ? | Popov et al.[9] |
Norton Basin, Alaska | High | Eocene/Paleocene | Direct | Smith[10] |
Alberta basin, Canada | High | Cretaceous | Direct | Masters[11] [12] |
Charlotte-Georgia Basin, Canada | Low/Moderate | Tertiary/Cretaceous | Direct ? | |
Willamette-Puget Sound Trough, Washington and Oregon | Moderate/High | Tertiary | Direct ? | Law,[13] Popov et al.[9] |
Columbia basin, Washington | High | Tertiary | Direct | Law et al.,[14] Law[13] |
Modoc Plateau, California | Low/Moderate | Cretaceous | Direct ? | Popov et al.[9] |
Sacramento/San Joaquin basins, California | Low/Moderate | Cretaceous | ? | Popov et al.[9] |
Great Basin, Nevada | Low | Tertiary ? | ? | Popov et al.[9] |
Snake River Plain, Idaho | Low/Moderate | Tertiary ? | ? | Popov et al.[9] |
Big Horn basin, Wyoming | High | Lower Tertiary/Cretaceous | Direct | Johnson et al.[7] |
Wind River basn, Wyoming | High | Cretaceous | Direct | Johnson et al.[6] |
Greater Green River basin, Wyoming | High | Lower Tertiary/Cretaceous | Direct | Law et al.,[15] Law et al.,[16] McPeek,[17] Law,[5] Law et al.[18] |
Hanna basin, Wyoming | High | Cretaceous | Direct | Popov et al.,[9] Wilson et al.[19] |
Powder River basin, Wyoming | High | Cretaceous | ? | Surdam et al.,[20] Maucione et al.[21] |
Wasatch Plateau, Utah | Moderate/High | Cretaceous | Direct | Popov et al.[9] |
Uinta basin, Utah | High | Lower Tertiary/Cretaceous | Direct | Fouch et al.,[22] Fouch and Schmoker,[23] Popov et al.[9] |
Piceance basin, Colorado | High | Cretaceous | Direct | Johnson et al.,[8] Spencer,[24] Spencer[25] |
South Park basin, Colorado | Moderate/High | Cretaceous | Direct/Indirect | Popov et al.[9] |
Raton basin, New Mexico and Colorado | High | Tertiary/Cretaceous | Direct/Indirect | Johnson and Finn,[26] Popov et al.[9] |
Denver basin, Colorado | High | Cretaceous | Direct/Indirect | Higley et al.,[27] Popov et al.[9] |
San Juan basin, New Mexico and Colorado | High | Cretaceous | Direct | Silver,[28] Masters,[11] Huffman[29] |
Permian basin, New Mexico | High | Permian | Indirect/Direct | Broadhead,[30] Popov et al.[9] |
Albuquerque basin, New Mexico | Moderate/High | Cretaceous | Direct | Johnson et al.[31] Popov et al.[9] |
Anadarko basin, Oklahoma | High | Pennsylvanian | Indirect | Al-Shaieb et al.,[32] Popov et al.[9] |
Midcontinent Rift, Minnesota and Iowa | Low/Moderate | Precambrian | Indirect/Direct | Popov et al.[9] |
Arkoma basin, Arkansas and Oklahoma | High | Pennsylvanian | Direct | Meckel et al.,[33] Popov et al.[9] |
Gulf Coast, United States | High | Cretaceous | Indirect | Popov et al.[9] |
East Texas basin, Texas | High | Jurassic | Indirect ? | Montgomery and Karlewiz,[34] Emme and Stancil[35] |
Black Warrior basin, Alabama and Mississippi | Moderate/High | Pennsylvanian | Direct | Popov et al.[9] |
Michigan basin, Michigan | Low/Moderate | Ordovician | ? | Popov et al.[9] |
Appalachian basin, eastern United States | High | Silurian/Devonian | Indirect | Davis,[36] Law and Spencer,[37] Law and Spencer,[3] Popov et al.,[9] Ryder and Zagorski[38] |
SOUTH AMERICA
| ||||
Chaco basin, Bolivia | Moderate | Devonian | ? | Williams et al.[39] |
Neuquen basin, Argentina | High | ? | ? | Fernandez-Sevesco and Surdam[40] |
EUROPE
| ||||
Timan-Pechora basin, Russa | High | Permian | Direct | Law et al.[41] |
Dnieper-Donets basin, Ukraine | High | Carboniferous | Direct | Law et al.[42] |
West Netherlands basin, Netherlands | Indeterminate | ? | ? | |
Vlieland basin, Netherlands | Indeterminate | ? | ? | |
Polish basin, Poland | Indeterminate | ? | ? | |
Upper Silesian basin, Poland | Indeterminate | ? | ? | |
Bekes basin, Hungary | Moderate/High | Miocene | ? | Spencer et al.[4] |
German basin, Germany | Indeterminate | ? | ? | |
Ruhr basin, Germany | Indeterminate | ? | ? | |
Thuringian basin, Germany | Indeterminate | ? | ? | |
Subhercynian basin, Germany | Indeterminate | ? | ? | |
Lower Saxony basin, Germany | Indeterminate | ? | ? | |
Saar-Nahe basin, Germany and France | Indeterminate | ? | ? | |
Rhine graben, Germany and France | Indeterminate | ? | ? | |
Nord-pas-de-Calais basin, France | Indeterminate | ? | ? | |
Lorraine basin, France | Indeterminate | ? | ? | |
Bresse basin, France | Indeterminate | ? | ? | |
Southeast basin, France | Indeterminate | ? | ? | |
Vienna basin, Austria and Slovakia | Indeterminate | ? | ? | |
Alpine Foreland basin, Switzerland | High | Permian/Carboniferous | Direct | Schegg et al.[43] |
ASIA-PACIFIC
| ||||
Sichuan basin, China | High | Permian/Triassic | Direct ? | Da-jun and Yun-ho,[44] Ryder et al.[45] |
Ordos Basin, China | High | Permian | ? | |
Jungar basin, China | High | Permian | ? | Zha et al.[46] |
Taranaki Basin, New Zealand | High | Eocene | Direct | |
Gippsland Basin, Australia | Moderate | Lower Tertiary/Cretaceous | Direct | Stainforth[47] |
Barrow Subbasin, Australia | High | Jurassic | ? | He and Middleton[48] |
Perth basin (onshore), Australia | Moderate | Jurassic | ? | Crostella[49] |
Carnarvon Basin, Australia | Low/Moderate | Permian | ? | Crostella[50] |
Khorat Plateau basin, Thailand-Laos | Low | Triassic/Jurassic | ? | Smith and Stokes[51] |
SOUTH ASIA
| ||||
Vendian basin, India | Low/Moderate | Precambrian | ? | |
Suliaman range foreland, Pakistan | Low | Cretaceous | Direct ? | |
MIDDLE EAST
| ||||
Risha area, Jordan | High | Ordovician | Indirect | Ahlbrandt et al.[52] |
AFRICA
| ||||
Ahnet basin, Algeria | High | Cambrian/Ordovician | Indirect | |
Benue trough, Nigeria | Moderate/High | Cretaceous | Direct | Obaje and Abaa[53] |
Indirect systems
In contrast to direct systems, indirect systems require a liquid-prone source rock (Figure 1). Reservoir quality in indirect systems is assumed to have been better than in direct systems. In this case, oil and gas are generated and expelled and migrate to reservoirs where they accumulate in structural and stratigraphic traps as discrete, buoyant accumulations with downdip water contacts. With subsequent burial and exposure to higher temperatures, the accumulated oil undergoes thermal cracking to gas, accompanied by a significant increase of fluid volume and pressures.[54] The level of thermal maturity at which oil is transformed to gas is commonly thought to be about 1.35% vitrinite reflectance (Ro);[55][56] however, some evidence indicates that the transformation may occur at higher levels of thermal maturity. Alternatively, gas derived from thermally cracked oil within a source rock may subsequently be expelled and migrate to low-permeability reservoirs.[57][58][59][56] Under these conditions of changing fluid volume and pressure, the capillary pressure of the water-wet pore system is exceeded, and, like pore pressures in direct systems, the high pressures forcibly expel mobile, free water from the pore system, replacing water with gas, and the development of an overpressured BCGA ensues. An additionally important aspect of this phase is the necessity for the presence of an effective lithologic top seal in reservoirs formerly occupied by discrete oil accumulations.
Phase III
At the point where direct and indirect systems are in the overpressured phase (phase II), the processes involved in the transition to phase III are identical for both systems (Figure 1). Phase III occurs when the overpressured phase of direct and indirect systems evolves into underpressured conditions. Both systems, subsequent to the phase II history of overpressure, may experience a period of uplift and erosional unloading and/or heat flow perturbations. During, or subsequent to, these burial and thermal history disruptions, some gas is lost from the accumulation, and the overpressured gas reservoirs are subjected to reduced temperatures. The loss of gas, in conjunction with reduced temperatures, effectively results in the development of an underpressured BCGA.[1][2] During this pressure transition, Meissner[60] emphasized the importance of gas loss over temperature reduction as the dominant process.
Conjectural evidence concerning the integrity of seals in direct vs. indirect systems implies that gas is lost more easily from direct BCGAs than from indirect BCGAs. Johnson et al.[61] have shown that gas in conventionally trapped accumulations in several Rocky Mountain basins originated from BCGAs, demonstrating that loss of gas through relative permeability, capillary pressure seals does occur. Examples of underpressured, phase III direct systems include Cretaceous rocks in the San Juan, Raton, and Denver basins, and examples of underpressured, phase III indirect systems include Lower Silurian reservoirs in the Appalachian basin, Ordovician reservoirs in the Risha area of eastern Jordan, and Cambrian and Ordovician reservoirs in the Ahnet basin of Algeria (Table 1).
Phase IV
Phase IV is theoretical and may be more applicable to direct systems because of the perceived, relatively better quality of seals in indirect systems than seals in direct systems. During phase IV, continued loss of gas from capillary pressure seals in BCGAs is accompanied by water slowly reentering underpressured, gas-bearing reservoirs. Under these conditions, Meissner[1] and Law and Dickinson[2] hypothesized that the underpressured, gas-bearing reservoirs would eventually evolve into normally pressured, water-bearing reservoirs, thus completing the pressure cycle.
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Meissner, F. Fm 1978, Patterns of source-rock maturity in non-marine source rocks of some typical western interior basins in non-marine Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous source rocks and the occurrence of oil and gas in the west central U.S.:Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists Continuing Education Notes, unpaginated.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Law, B. E., and W. W. Dickinson, 1985, A conceptual model for the origin of abnormally pressured gas accumulations in low-permeability reservoirs: AAPG Bulletin, v. 69, p. 1295-1304.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Law, B. E., and C. W. Spencer, 1998, Abnormal pressure in hydrocarbon environments, in B. E. Law, G. F. Ulmishek, and V. I. Slavin, eds., Abnormal pressures in hydrocarbon environments: AAPG Memoir 70, p. 1-11.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Spencer, C. W., A. Szalay, and E. Tatar, 1994, Abnormal pressure and hydrocarbon migration in the Bekes basin, in P. G. Teleki, R. E. Mattick, and J. Kokai, eds., Basin analysis in petroleum exploration: Dordrecht Netherlands, Kluwer Academic Publishers, p. 201-219.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Law, B. E., 1984, Relationships of source rocks, thermal maturity, and overpressuring to gas generation and occurrence in low-permeability Upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary rocks, Greater Green River basin, Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah, in J. Woodward, F. F. Meissner, and J. L. Clayton, eds., Hydrocarbon source rocks of the greater Rocky Mountain region: Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists Guidebook, P. 469-490.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Johnson, R. C., T. M. Finn, R. A. Crovelli, and R. H. Balay, 1996, An assessment of in-place gas resources in low-permeability Upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary sandstone reservoirs, Wind River basin, Wyoming: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 96-264, 67 p.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Johnson, R. C., R. A. Crovelli, B. G. Lowell, and T. M. Finn, 1999, An assessment of in-place gas resources in the low-permeability basin-centered gas accumulation of the Big Horn basin, Wyoming and Montana: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 99-315A, 123 p.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Johnson, R. C., R. A. Crovelli, C. W. Spencer, and R. F. Mast, 1987, An assessment of gas resources in low-permeability sandstones of the Upper Cretaceous Mesaverde Group, Piceance basin, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 87-357, 165 p.
- ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19 9.20 9.21 9.22 Popov, M. A., V. F. Nuccio, T. S. Dyman, T. A. Gognat, R. C. Johnson, J. W. Schmoker, M. S. Wilson, and C. Bartberger, 2001, Basin-centered gas systems of the U.S.:U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 01-135, Version 1.0, 1 CD-ROM.
- ↑ Smith, J. T., 1994, Petroleum system logic as an exploration tool in a frontier setting, in L. B. Magoon and W. G. Dow, eds., The petroleum system-from source to trap: AAPG Memoir 60, p. 25-49.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Masters, J. A., 1979, Deep basin gas trap, western Canada: AAPG Bulletin, v. 63, p. 152-181.
- ↑ Masters, J. A., ed., 1984, Elmworth-case study of a deep basin gas field: AAPG Memoir 38, 316 p.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Law, B. E., 1996, Southwestern Wyoming province (037), in D. L. Gautier, G. L. Dolton, K. I. Takahashi, and K. L. Varnes, eds., 1995 national assessment of United States oil and gas resources-results, methodology, and supporting data: U.S. Geological Survey Digital Data Series DDS-30, Release 2, 1 CD-ROM.
- ↑ Law, B. E., M. E. Tennyson, and S. Y. Johnson 1994, Basin-centered gas accumulations in the Pacific Northwest-a potentially large source of energy (abs.): AAPG Annual Meeting Program, v. 3, p. 194.
- ↑ Law, B. E., C. W. Spencer, and N. H. Bostic, 1979, Preliminary results of organic maturation, temperature, and pressure studies in the Pacific Creek area, Sublette County, Wyoming, in 5th Department of Energy symposium on enhanced oil and gas recovery and improved drilling methods, v. 3-oil and gas recovery: Tulsa, Oklahoma, Petroleum Publishing, p. K-2/1-K-2/13.
- ↑ Law, B. E., C. W. Spencer, and N. H. Bostick, 1980, Evaluation of organic maturation, subsurface temperature, and pressure with regard to gas generation in low-permeability Upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary strata in the Pacific Creek area, Sublette County, Wyoming: Mountain Geologist, v. 17, no. 2, p. 23-35.
- ↑ McPeek, L. A., 1981, Eastern Green River basin-a developing giant gas supply from deep, overpressured Upper Cretaceous sandstones: AAPG Bulletin, v. 65, p. 1078-1098.
- ↑ Law, B. E., C. W. Spencer, R. R. Charpentier, R. A. Crovelli, R. F. Mast, G. L. Dolton, and C. J. Wandrey, 1989, Estimates of gas resources in overpressured low-permeability Cretaceous and Tertiary sandstone reservoirs, Greater Green River basin, Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah: 40th Annual Field Conference, Wyoming Geological Association Guidebook, p. 39-61.
- ↑ Wilson, M. S., T. S. Dyman, and V. F. Nuccio, 2001, Potential for deep basin-centered gas accumulations in Hanna basin, Wyoming: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2184-A, 12 p.
- ↑ Surdam, R. C., Z. S. Jiao, and R. S. Martinsen, 1994, The regional pressure regime in Cretaceous sandstones and shales in the Powder River basin, in P. J. Ortoleva, ed., Basin compartments and seals: AAPG Memoir 61, p. 213-233.
- ↑ Maucion, D., V. Serebryakov, P. Valasek, Y. Wang, and S. Smithson, 1994, A sonic log study of abnormally pressured zones in the Powder River basin of Wyoming, in P. J. Ortoleva, ed., Basin compartments and seals: AAPG Memoir 61, p. 333-348.
- ↑ Fouch, T. D., V. F. Nuccio, J. C. Osmond, L. MacMillan, W. B. Cachion, and C. J. Wandrey, 1992, Oil and gas in uppermost Cretaceous and Tertiary rock, Uinta basin, Utah, in T. D. Fouch, V. F. Nuccio, and T. C. Chidsey Jr., eds., Hydrocarbon and mineral resources of the Uinta basin, Utah and Colorado: Utah Geological Association Guidebook 20, p. 9-47.
- ↑ Fouch, T. D., and J. W. Schmoker, 1996, Tight gas plays of the Uinta basin, in D. L. Gautier, G. L. Dolton, K. I. Takahashi, and K. L. Varnes, eds, 1995 national assessment of United States oil and gas resources-results, methodology, and supporting data: U.S. Geological Survey Digital Data Series DDS-30, Release 2, 1 CD-ROM.
- ↑ Spencer, C. W., 1987, Hydrocarbon generation as a mechanism for overpressuring in Rocky Mountain region: AAPG Bulletin, v. 71, p. 368-388.
- ↑ Spencer, C. W., 1989, Review of characteristics of low-permeability gas reservoirs in western United States: AAPG Bulletin, v. 73, p. 613-629.
- ↑ Johnson, R. C., and T. M. Finn, 2001, Potential for basin-centered gas accumulation in the Raton basin, Colorado and New Mexico: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2184-B, 14 p.
- ↑ Higley, D. K., D. L. Gautier, and M. J. Pawlewicz, 1992, Influence of regional head flow variation on thermal maturity of the Lower Cretaceous Muddy ("J") Sandstone, Denver basin, Colorado, in The petroleum system-status of research and methods, 1992: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2007, p. 66-69.
- ↑ Silver, C., 1950, The occurrence of gas in the Cretaceous rocks of the San Juan basin, New Mexico and Colorado: New Mexico Geological Society, First Field Conference, San Juan basin, p. 109-123.
- ↑ Huffman, A. C., 1996, San Juan basin province, in D. L. Gautier, G. L. Dolton, K. I. Takahashi, and K. L. Varnes, eds, 1995 national assessment of United States oil and gas resources-results, methodology, and supporting data: U.S. Geological Survey Digital Data Series DDS-30, Release 2, 1 CD-ROM.
- ↑ Broadhead, R. F., 1984, Geology of gas production from tight Abo red beds, east central New Mexico: Oil & Gas Journal, v. 82, no. 24, p. 147-158.
- ↑ Johnson, R. C., T. M. Finn, and V. F. Nuccio, 2001, Potential for basin-centered gas accumulation in the Albuquerque basin, New Mexico: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2184-C, 21 p.
- ↑ Al-Shaieb, Z., J. Puckette, A. Abdalla, and P. B. Ely, 1994, Megacompartment complex in the Anadarko basin: A completely sealed overpressured phenomenon, in P. J. Ortoleva, ed., Basin compartments and seals: AAPG Memoir 61, p. 55-62.
- ↑ Meckel, L. D., D. G. Smith, and L. A. Wells, 1992, Ouachita foredeep basins: Regional paleogeography and habitat of hydrocarbons, in R. W. Macqueen and D. A. Leckie, eds., Foreland basins and fold belts: AAPG Memoir 55, p. 427-444.
- ↑ Montgomery, S. L., and R. Karlewicz, 2001, Bossier play has room to grow: Oil & Gas Journal, v. 99, no. 5, p. 36-42.
- ↑ Emme, J., and B. Stancil, 2002, Anadarko's Bossier gas play-a sleeping giant in a mature basin (abs.): AAPG Annual Meeting Program, v. 11, p. A50.
- ↑ Davis, T. B., 1984, Subsurface pressure profiles in gas saturated basins, in J. A. Masters, ed., Elmworth-case study of a deep basin gas field: AAPG Memoir 38, p. 189-203.
- ↑ Law, B. E., and C. W. Spencer, 1993, Gas in tight reservoirs-an emerging source of energy, in D. G. Howell, ed., The future of energy gases: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1570, p. 233-252.
- ↑ Ryder, R. T., and W. A. Zagorski, 2003, Nature, origin, and production characteristics of the Lower Silurian regional oil and gas accumulation, central Appalachian basin, United States: AAPG Bulletin, v. 87, no. 5, p. 847-872.
- ↑ Williams, K. E., B. J. Radovich, and J. W. Brett, 1995, Exploration for deep gas in the Devonian Chaco basin of southern Bolivia: Sequence stratigraphy, prediction, and well results (abs.): AAPG Annual Convention, Abstracts with Program, v. 4, p. A104.
- ↑ Fernandez-Sevesco, F., and R. C. Surdam, 1997, A new exploration approach in the search for anomalously pressured hydrocarbon accumulations in the Neuquen Basin, Argentina (abs.): AAPG International Conference and Exhibition Program, p. A16.
- ↑ Law, B. E., V. I. Bogatsky, S. . Danilevsky, L. V. Galkina, G. F. Ulmishek, and C. W. Spencer, 1996, Basin-centered gas accumulations in the Timan-Pechora basin, Russia (abs.): AAPG Annual Convention Program, v. 5, p. A81.
- ↑ Law, B. E., G. F. Ulmishek, B. P. Kabyshev, N. T. Pashova, and V. A. Krivosheya, 1998, Basin-centered gas evaluated in Dnieper-Donets basin, Donbas foldbelt, Ukraine: Oil & Gas Journal, v. 100, no. 30, p. 74-78.
- ↑ Schegge, R., W. Leu, and E. Greber, 1997, New exploration concepts spark Swiss gas, oil prospects: Oil & Gas Journal, v. 95, no. 39, p. 102-106.
- ↑ Da-jun, P., and L. Yun-ho, 1994, Genetic mechanism of abnormal pressure, pressure seals, and natural gas accumulation in carbonate reservoirs, Sichuan basin: Proceedings of the AAPG Research Conference Abnormal Pressures in Hydrocarbon Environments, unpaginated.
- ↑ Ryder, R. T., D. D. Rice, Z. Sun, Y. Zhanz, Y. Qui, and Z. Guo, 1994, Petroleum geology of the Sichuan basin China-report on U.S. Geological Survey and Chinese Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources, field investigation and meeting, October 1991: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 94-426, 67 p.
- ↑ Zha, M., W. Zhang, and Q. Jiangxiu, 1999, Overpressured compartments in Junggar basin, northwest of China: Mechanisms and hydrocarbon distribution (abs.): AAPG Annual Convention, Program with Abstracts, v. 8, p. A158-159.
- ↑ Stainforth, J.G., 1984, Gippsland hydrocarbons-a perspective from the basin edge: Australian Petroleum Exploration Association Journal, v. 24, p. 91-100.
- ↑ He, S., and M. Middleton, 2002, Pressure seal and modeling of the Jurassic overpressure in the Barrow Sub-basin, northwest shelf of Australia (abs.): AAPG Annual Meeting Program, v. 11, p. A74.
- ↑ Crostella, A., 1995, An evaluation of the hydrocarbon potential of the onshore Northern Perth basin, western Australia: Geological Survey of Western Australia Report 43, 67 p.
- ↑ Crostella, A., 1995, Structural evolution and hydrocarbon potential of the Merlinliegh and Byro sub-basins, Canarvon basin, western Australia: Geological Survey of Western Australia Report 45, 35 p.
- ↑ Smith, P. F. L., and R. B. Stokes, 1997, Geology and petroleum potential of the Khorat Plateau Basin in the Vientiane area of Lao P.D.R.: Journal of Petroleum Geology, v. 20, p. 27-50.
- ↑ Ahlbrandt, T. S., O. A. Okasheh, and M. Lewan, 1997, A Middle East basin center hydrocarbon accumulation in Paleozoic rocks, eastern Jordan, western Iraq, and surrounding areas (abs.): AAPG International Conference and Exhibition, p. A1-A2.
- ↑ Obaje, N. G., and S. I. Abaa, 1996, Potential for col-derived gaseous hydrocarbons in the middle Benue Trough of Nigeria: Journal of Petroleum Geology, v. 19, p. 77-94.
- ↑ Barker, C., 1990, Calculated volume and pressure change during the thermal cracking of oil to gas in reservoirs: AAPG Bulletin, v. 74, p. 1254-1261.
- ↑ Tissot, B. P., and D. H. Welte, 1984, Petroleum formation and occurrence, 2d rev. ed.: Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 699 p.
- ↑ 56.0 56.1 Hunt, J. M., 1996, Petroleum geochemistry and geology, 2d ed.: New York, W. H. Freeman and co., 743 p.
- ↑ Garcia-Gonzales, M., D. B. MacGowan, and R. C. Surdam, 1993, Coal as a source rock of petroleum and gas-a comparison between natural and artificial maturation of the Almond Formation coals, Greater Green River basin in Wyoming, in D. G. Howell, ed., The future of energy gases: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1570, p. 405-437.
- ↑ Garcia-Gonzales, M., D. B. MacGowan, and R. C. Surdam, 1993, Mechanisms of petroleum generation from coal, as evidenced from petrographic and geochemical studies: Examples from Almond Formation coals in the Greater Green River basin, in B. Strook and S. Andrew, eds., Wyoming Geological Association Jubilee Anniversary Field Conference Guidebook, p. 311-323.
- ↑ MacGowan, D. B., M. Garcia-Gonzales, D. R. Britton, and R. C. Surdam, 1993, Timing of hydrocarbon generation, organic-inorganic diagenesis, and the formation of abnormally pressured gas compartments in the Cretaceous of the Greater Green River basin: A geochemical model, in B. Strook and S. Andrew, eds., Wyoming Geological Association Jubilee Anniversary Field Conference Guidebook, p. 325-357.
- ↑ Meissner, F. F., 2000, Causes of anomalous deep basin fluid pressures in Rocky Mountain basins and their relation to regional gas accumulation, in 2000 basin-centered gas symposium: Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, 11 p.
- ↑ Johnson, R. C., D. D. Rice, and T. D. Fouch, 1994, Evidence for gas migration from Cretaceous basin-centered accumulations into lower Tertiary reservoirs in Rocky Mountain basins: Proceedings of the Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists and Colorado Association First Biennial Conference, Natural Gas in the Western United States, 8 p.
See also
- Basin-centered gas
- Basin-centered gas systems: historical development and classification
- Basin-centered gas systems
- Basin-centered gas systems: elements and processes
- Basin-centered gas systems: examples
- Basin-centered gas systems: gas resources
- Basin-centered gas systems: global distribution
- Basin-centered gas systems: evaluation and exploration strategies
- Tight gas reservoirs: evaluation